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Note On BCE/BME Module 2

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Published in: B.Tech Tuition | Electrical | Electronics
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Continue your success with these crisp, complete study notes covering the Second Module of Basics of Civil/Mechanical Engineering (BCE/BME). This focused PDF delivers the full content needed for B.Tech 1st Year students. Perfectly aligned with both the 2019 and New 2023 schemes, it's the ideal resource for mastering Module 2 concepts and confidently preparing for your exams.

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  1. MODULE 11 SYLLABUS SURVEYING: IMPORTA NCE, OBJECTIVESAND PRINCIPLES. CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS, CONVENTIONAL CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS: TYPES, PROPERTIES AND USES OF BUILDING MATERIALS: BRICKS, STONES, CEMENT, SAND AND TIMBER CEMENT CONCRETE: - CONSTITUENT MATERIALS, PROPERTIES AND TYPES. STEEL:- STEEL SECTIONS AND STEEL REINFORCEMENTS, TYPES AND USES. Page 1
  2. Modern construction materials:- Architectural glass, ceramics, Plastics, composite materials, thermal and acoustic insulating materials, decorative panels, waterproofing materials. Modern uses of gypsum, pre-fabricated building components (brief discussion only). SURVEYING C] Surveying is the art of measuring relative position of an object above, on or below the earth's surface by direct or indirect measurements of distance, elevation and direction. It is the process of determining relative positions of points in a horizontal plane. IMPORTANCE OF SURVEYING Ms. Jency James, Ms. Anusree Lal and Mr. Unnikrishnan S, Asst. Professors, Dept. of CE, Page 2
  3. The knowledge Of surveying is advantageous in many phases Of engineering. Surveying is Of vital importance in any engineering project. Some Of the basic importance Of Surveying is discussed below. C] C] The first necessity in surveying is to prepare a plan and a section Of an area to be covered by the project. From these prepared maps and sections the best possible alignment, amount Of earthwork and Other necessary details depending upon the nature Of the project can be calculated. The planning and design Of all Civil Engineering projects such as railways, highways, tunneling, irrigation, dams, reservoirs, waterworks, sewerage works, airfields, ports, massive buildings, etc. are based upon surveying measurements. During execution Of the project Of any magnitude is constructed along the lines and points established by surveying. The measurement Of land and the fixation Of its boundaries cannot be done without surveylng. The economic feasibility Of the engineering feasibility Of a project cannot be properly ascertained without undertaking a survey work. The execution Of hydrographic and oceanographic charting and mapping requires. Surveying is used to prepare a topographic map Of a land surface Of the earth. TO prepare necessary maps (geological, archaeological, military) Of an area. to locate arbitrary points, direction and length of lines, boundary lines, etc TO set Out the lines and grades needed for the construction Of buildings, roads, dams, and Other structures TO calculate areas, volumes and Other related quantities Measurement Of distances between two points Determination Of relative position Of points The 2 fundamental principles are 1. Workingfrom the whole topart: Page 3
  4. 2. TO do this area to be surveyed is divided into smaller triangles and the area will be surveyed from the boundary to the innermost triangle. The purpose Of working from whole to apart is to localize the errors and to control the accumulation Of errors. Fixing position Of two points as reference point. Fix the position Of any point from atleast two permanent objects or stations. Two controls are selected in the area and the distance between them is measured and plotted on a paper. All Other points to be surveyed are based on these two points. If A and B are 2 control points and C is the point to be measured, the methods are D Measuring distance AC and BC. The meeting points Of two distances give the position Of point C. A perpendicular CD is dropped to the reference line AB. Distance AD and DC is measured and thus C is plotted. Distance BC and angle ABC is measured to plot point C. Distance AC and angle ABC is measured and point C is determined. Angle BAC and angle ABC measured and point C is determined. Angle BAC and angle ABC measured. Meeting point Of these 2 angles gives point c. d. fig. Il .3. Locating point C w.r.t. points A and B CONSTRUCTION MATERIAI S A wide range Of building materials is available for the construction Of rural buildings and structures. The proper selection Of materials to be used in a particular building or structure can influence the original cost, maintenance, ease Of cleaning, durability and, Of course, appearance. Page 4
  5. Several factors need to be considered when choosing the materials for a construction job, including: l. Type and function of the building or structure and the specific characteristics required Of the materials used, i.e. great strength, water resistance, wear resistance, attractive appearance, etc. 2. Economic aspects Of the building/structure in terms Of original investment and annual cost Of maintenance. 3. Availability Of materials in the area. 4. Availability Of the skilled labour required to install some types Of material. 5. Quality and durability Of different types of material. 6. Transportation costs. Selection Of materials with compatible properties, dimensions and means Of installation. 7. 8. Cultural acceptability or personal preference. BUILDING MATERIALS: 1. BRICKS Brick is one Of the oldest building materials made Of burnt clay. Bricks are obtained by moulding clay in rectangular blocks Of uniform size and then by drying and burning them in kilns. Advantages: Light in weight, Simple to handle. Durability Strength Low cost Easily available. Specification of Size of bricks:- BIS recommended size- Modular bricks (Standard size) (19 cm x 9 cm x 9 cm). Nominal size of brick includes the mortar thickness (20 cm X 10 cm X 10 cm). Bricks which are not standardized — traditional bricks. Page 5
  6. D Average weight of brick 3-3.5 kg. Classification of bricke- 1. 2. a) b) c) Unburned bricks: - These bricks are sundried. They have low strength and are used in the temporary and cheap structures. Burnt bricks: - these bricks are used in all construction works. Firstclass bricks:- C] It should have all the requirements Of a good standard brick. C]Made of regular good earth, thoroughly burnt and have regular shape, uniform reddish colour, and sharp edges. They should not absorb more than 20% Of its dry weight, when immersed in water for 24 hours. The thickness Of mortar joints does not exceed I O mm. Its compressive strength should be greater than 100 kg/ cm2. They are table moulded and burnt in kilns. It is used for quality work. Secondclass bricks:- C] C] C] These bricks are moulded on ground and are burnt in kilns. Surface of brick is rough and shape is irregular. Water absorption should not be more than 22% Of its weight. Thickness of mortar joints is 12 mm. Minimum compressive strength 80 kg/ cm2. Used at places where the brickwork is to be provided with a coat of plaster and for internal walls. Thirdclass bricks:- C] C] C] C] C] They are not hard. Rough surfaces with irregular edges. Half burnt bricks Of uniform reddish colour. Defects in colour, shape and size. Water absorption not more than 25%. Minimum compressive strength 45 kg/ m2 These bricks give dull sound when struck together. Used for unimportant and temporary structures and at places where the rainfall is not heavy. Page 6
  7. d) Fourth class bricks:- C] Over burnt, irregular shape, dark colour. C] Used as aggregate for concrete. eroperties of Good Bricks:- 0 The bricks should confirm to the IS Specification (Indian standard specification) with respect to shape, size, strength and water absorption. It should be uniform in shape and Of standard size. Colour should be uniform ( uniform deep red) It should have a homogeneous and uniform compact structure free from voids when broken. Water absorption should not be greater than 20 % Of dry weight. It should emit clear ringing sound when struck with each other. It should not break, if the brick is drop from a height Of I m. It should be sufficiently hard. NO impression should be made when scratched with nails. Low thermal conductivity and sound insulation. It should have perfect edges, well burnt in kilns, copper coloured, free from cracks with sharp and square edges. It should not have crushing strength below 10.5 N/mm2. The main uses Of construction brick are: Construction of walls Of any size Construction Of floors Construction Of arches and cornices Construction of brick retaining wall Making Khoa (Broken bricks Of required size) to use as an aggregate in concrete Manufacture Of surki (powdered bricks) to be used in lime plaster and lime concrete 2.CEMENT It is a construction material which possesses very good adhesive and cohesive properties making it good for bonding mineral fragments in to a strong compact mass. D It is a finely ground powder, when mixed with water produce a very hard and strong binding medium. It provides an exothermic reaction. C] Cement is obtained by burning a mixture Of calcareous (CaC03) and argillaceous materials (clay) in 4:1 proportion at a very high temperature. Page 7
  8. Ingredient Lime Ca() Silica Si02 Alumina A1203 Iron Oxide Fe203 Magnesium Oxide Mg() eroperties of cement Physical properties D Portland cement is commonly used. D On setting cement resembles a type Of sand stone found in Portland Of England and is known as ordinary Portland cement. Ingredients Or composition Of Cement 2 -40 Percentage composition 60 - 65 % 17 -25% 3-8% 1-5% 1-3% 0.3 - 1.5 % Function Give strength Give strength Quick setting property Gives strength & imparts colour Gives strength, but excess presence is harmful Small amount provide sound cement, excess presenceisharmful Cause efflorescence when in excess a. b. C. d. Uniform grey colour with light greenish shade, free from lumps and should be cool when felt with hand. Fineness Fineness is the measure of mean size Of grains in cement. When sieved through 90 g sieve, the quantity of residue left after sieving should not exceed 10%. Setting time Setting is the process Of hardening Of the cement paste into a hard solid mass. The initial setting time should not be less than 30min and the final setting time should not be more than 600min. Soundness Page 8
  9. Cement paste after setting should not undergo large change in volume which may lead to disintegration and cracking. This property is known as soundness. This expansion should not be less than 10 mm. Chemical properties I .Rati0 of percentage Of alumina to iron oxides should not be < 0.66 2.Rati0 of percentage Of lime to that Of Alumina, iron oxides and silica should not be < 0.66 and should not be > 1.02 3 Total loss on ignition should not be > 5% 4.Sulpher content should not be > 2.5% 5.Weight Of insoluble residues in cement should not be > 4%. 1) Portland Cement Cement obtained by burning and crushing Of argillaceous and calcareous materials, which on setting if resembles a variety Of sandstone found in Portland Of England; such cement is known as ordinary Portland cement. 2) Quick SettingCement It is produced by adding small percentage Of aluminium sulphate and reduces the percentage Of gypsum. The setting time Of this type Of cement occurs within 30min. it is usually used for laying concrete under water. 3) Low Heat Cement It is produced by the addition Of lower percentage Of tricalcium aluminate and higher percentage Of dicalcium silicate. It is mainly used for concreting dams, abutments etc. 4) High Alumina Cement It is produced by the addition Of high percentage Of bauxite and lime. The total alumina content in this type Of cement should not be less than 32%. In this cement, the initial setting is > 3.5 hrs and final setting time is 5hrs. It can resist frosts, acids and can withstand high temperatures. It attains the maximum strength within short period. It is mainly used for making refractory concrete, insulation of furnace etc. 5) ExpandingCement It is produced by adding an expanding medium (sulpho aluminate) and a stabilizing agent. It is mainly used for repairing damaged concrete surfaces due to cracks, constructing water retaining structures etc. Page 9
  10. (6) Rapid Hardening Cement It is produced by burning the ingredients at high temperature and with high lime content. It attains high strength within few days (same initial and final setting time as that Of OPC). It is used for those works which is to be completed speedily and economically. (7) Sulphate Resisting Cement In this type Of cement, the percentage Of tricalcium aluminate is It has high sulphate resisting power. It is used for structures which may be damaged due to severe alkaline conditions. (8) White Cement It is prepared from raw materials free from any colouring agents such as oxides Of iron, manganese and chromium. It is used for floor finish, plastic work, ornamental work etc. (9) Coloured Cement It is produced by mixing mineral pigments (colouring agents) with ordinary cement. It is used for finishing floors, external walls, stairs, trails etc. (l O) Water Proof Cement It is produced by adding water proof substances like calcium stearate, aluminium stearate and gypsum treated with tannic acid to OPC. It is mainly used for plastering water retaining structures, roof etc. Cement mortar for Masonry work, plaster and pointing etc. Concrete for laying floors, roofs and constructing lintels, beams, weather-shed, stairs, pillars etc. Construction for important engineering structures such as bridge, culverts, dams, tunnels, light house, clocks, etc. Construction Of water, wells, tennis courts, septic tanks, lamp posts, telephone cabins etc. Making joint for joints, pipes, etc. Manufacturing of precast pipes, garden seats, flower pots, etc. Preparation Of foundation, water tight floors, footpaths, etc. Page 10
  11. 3. STONES Stone isa natural construction material. It is obtained from rocks by quarrying. A Building Stone is a piece Of rock quarried and worked into a specific size and shape for a particular purpose. The properties Of stones depend upon the mother rock from which they are extracted. Stones, quarried fresh from the rock are irregular in shape and size and are soft. They are cut into to desired shape & size and seasoned before put to use in construction. Stones are long lasting and naturally available in large quantities. DIFFERENT TYPES OF STONES 1. BASALT AND TRAP These are igneousrocks. Theyare used as road metals, aggregates for concrete. They are also used for rubble masonry works for bridge piers, river walls and dams. They are used as pavement. 2. GRANITE Granites are also igneous rocks. The colour varies from light gray to pink. They are hard durable. They are used primarily for bridge piers, river walls, and for dams. They are used as kerbs and pedestals. The use Of granite for monumental and institutional buildings is common. Polished granites are used as table tops, cladding for columns and wall. They are used as coarse aggregates in concrete. 3. SAND STONE They are found in various colours like white, grey, red, buff, brown, yellow and even dark gray. Weathering Of rocks renders it unsuitable as building stone. It is desirable to use sand stones with silica cement for heavy structures, if necessary. They are used for masonry work, for dams, bridge piers and river walls. 4. SLATE These are metamorphic rocks. They are composed Of quartz, mica and clay minerals. The structure is fine grained. The colour varies from dark gray, greenish gray, purple gray to black. They are used as roofing tiles, slabs, pavements etc. 5. LATERITE It is a metamorphic rock. It contains high percentage Of iron oxide. Its colour may be brownish, red, yellow, brown and grey. It can be easily quarried in blocks. When used as building stone, its outer surface should be plastered. Page 11
  12. 6. MARBLE Thisis a metamorphic rock. It can take good polish. It is available in different pleasing colours like white and pink. It is used for facing and ornamental works. It is used for columns, flooring, steps etc. 7. QUARTZITE Quartzites are metamorphic rocks. They are available in different colours like white, gray, yellowish. They are used as building blocks and slabs. They are also used as aggregates for concrete. A good building stone should have the following Properties : Appearance: Good building stone should be Of uniform colour, and free from clay holes, e. Crushing Strength: A good building stone should have sufficient crushing strength to withstand the load Of superstructure .1n general; it should not be less than 1000 kg /cm2 Hardness, Toughness and resistance to Abrasion: The stone to be used in stairs, pavements, as railway ballast or road metal must be sufficiently hard, tough and resistant to abrasion, it must be able to resist wear and tear. (Coefficient of hardness >14. Toughness index > 13). Durability: A good building stone must be durable enough to resist the effect Of weathering agencies like rain, wind, temperature etc. It should have fine grained, compact and crystalline structure. Texture: A good building stone should have a close grained and compact texture. Seasoning: Stones should be well seasoned before putting into use. A period Of about 6 to 12 months is considered to be sufficient for proper seasoning. Seasoning is best done by keeping the stones in open sheds for about 6 to 12months. Workability: The stone to be used for ornamental carving and architectural appearance should be easily and economically dressed. Porosity: A good building stone should be less porous. It should not absorb more than 5% water by weight after 24 hours. Any stone absorbing 10% Of water should be rejected. Resistance to fire: A good building stone be fire proof. Sandstone, Argillaceous stone resists fire quite well. Specific gravity: it is a measure Of weight Of the stone. The stone to be used on heavy engineering works, docks, harbours, gravity dams etc. must have high specific gravity. It varies from 2.4 to 2.8. Page 12
  13. l. Structure Stones are used for foundations, walls, columns, lintels, arches, roofs, floors, damp proof course etc. 2. Face works Stones are adopted to give massive appearance to the structure. Facing Of Walls of bricks is done in stones Of desired shades. This is known as composite masonry. 3. Paving stones These are used to cover floor of buildings Of all types. They are also adopted to form paving Of roads, foot paths etc. 4. Basic material Stones are disintegrated and converted to form a basic material for cement concrete, moor-um Of roads, calcareous cements, artificial stones, hallow blocks etc. 5. Miscellaneous Stones are also used for (i) ballast for railways (ii) flux in blast furnace (iii) Blocks in the construction Of bridges, piers, abutments,retaining walls, light houses, dams etc. SAND Sand is a mixture Of small grains of rock and granular materials which is mainly defined by Size, emg Iner grave an coarser Sl . an IS orme y e wea erlngo roc Sand is a non-renewable resource over human timescales, and sand suitable for making concrete is in high demand. Different Types of Sand 1. Pit Sand: This sand is obtained by forming pits in soils. It is excavated from a depth Of about 1-2 m from the ground level. This sand is found as deposits in soil and it consists Of sharp angular grains, which are free from salts. It serves as an excellent material for mortar or concrete work. Pit sand must be made free from clay and Other organic materials before it can be used in mortar. A coating Of Oxide of iron over the sand grains should be removed. 2. River sand Page 13
  14. This sand is widely used for all purposes. It is obtained from the banks or beds of rivers and it consists Of fine rounded grains. The presence Of fine rounded grains is due to mutual attrition under the action Of water current. The river sand is available in clean conditions. The river sand is almost white in color. It is mainly used for plastering. In north India, Yamuna banks are a great source Of River sand 3. Sea Sand This is obtained from sea shores. It is brown in color and it also has the fine rounded grain. As it is obtained from sea it contains salt, which is used in attracting moisture from atmosphere. Such absorption causes dampness and disintegration Of work. It is generally not used for engineering purpose due to its retards setting action Of cement. It is normally used for non structural purposes. 4. Artificial Sand This sand is manufactured by crushing either granite or basalt rock using 3 stage crushing process. This is known as robo-sand. This is not widely used due to high cost but now a day it isused in cities for construction purposes. 5. Volcanic Sand Volcanicallyaffected regions have their own type of dark-colored sand with a different type of characteristics. And sometimes coal is found in that. ropertie«of good«and The grains should be sharp, angular and coarse. The sand should be free from clay material and organic matters. The grains should be Of durable minerals. It should be free from salts. The gradation Of grains size should be such as that it will give minimum voids. It should be clean and free from coatings Of clay and silt. It should not contain organic matter. It should be chemically. Sand is loose particles of hard broken rock, it comprises Of grains from the disintegrate rock. Sand should be such size that it should pass through IS. sieve No.-480 [4.75mm]and should retain on I.S. No-5[O.05mm] as per Indian standards[I.S] Page 14
  15. TIMBER in construction, but also it caters Other needs Of human beings. The timber was used in the raw form in ancient days, but it is treated, converted, preserved and used now. Timber is obtained from trees. Trees are classified into two types. They are: 1. Exogenous trees: These trees grow outwards and increase in bulk by forming concentric rings from the centre. These are used for engineering construction. E.g.: Teak, deodar and Sal. These are further classified into conifers (soft wood) and deciduous (hard wood). Conifers are evergreen trees. These are soft, light and weak. But deciduous are broad leaf trees. They are hard, heavy, dark coloured and durable. 2. Endogenous trees: These trees grow inwards by depositing each fresh layer Of fibrous mass in longitudinal direction. E.g. Bamboo. VARITIES OF TIMBER There are different varieties of timber available in Kerala. Some Of the important ones found in Kerala and used in construction and Other are listed below. Aini: (Anjili) Its color is yellowish brown. It is elastic, close-grained, and strong. It takes polish and suitable for underwater works. It is easy to saw when green. It is used for building construction, structural work, paving, furniture and for ship building etc. Banyan: It is brown coloured. Only under water, it is strong and durable. It is used for scaffolding, thatched roofs, rafters, temporary bridges and fancy Å00ds etc. Bamboo: It is an endogenous tree. It is flexible, durable and strong. Bamboo is used for scaffolding, thatch roofs, temporary bridges etc. Benteak: (Venthek) it is strong and takes up a smooth surface. It is very brittle and liable to warp easily. It is used for paneling works, as it takes good polish. Page 15
  16. It is coarse-grained, durable and strong with light brown colour. It is difficult to work. White ants do not easily attack it. It is used for ordinary building constructions, cart wheels etc. Casuarinc: (Kattadi or choola) is a tropical conifer type tree. The tree has delicate, slender ultimate branches and leaves. The stems Of these trees are used as posts for fencing and scaffolding works. Mahagony: It has a generally straight grain and is usually free Of voids and pockets. It has a reddish brown color which darkens over time, and displays a beautiful reddish surface when polished. It has excellent workability, and is very durable and slow to rot. These properties make it a favorable wood for boat making, doors and windows and furniture. Coconut: It is reddish in colour. Outer portion is hard and inner portion is soft. It is difficult to saw. The stem Of the coconut tree is used as posts, poles and piles. It always needs preservative treatment. It is also used for furniture work. It is used for formwork in concrete construction. Hopea: (Kambakam) Its color varies from light to deep brown. It is extremely strong, tough and difficult to work with. It is durable, termite resistant and easily seasonable. It is used for ordinary house constructions, piles, railway sleepers, boat building etc. Indian elm: It is a red colored, hard and strong wood. Used for door and window frames, carts etc. Irul: (Irumullu) It is a hard, strong and durable timber. It has a pinkish white colour. It is rather difficult to work. It requires careful seasoning. It is used for railway sleepers, bridges, agricultural equipments, paving blocks heavy' construction etc. Jack:Nilavu) Yellow coloured, compact and even grained. It is not easy to work and maintains its shape well. It has to be seasoned slowly and carefully; Used foqplane furnitureE boat construction, door panels and frames. Page 16
  17. Kathal: Its color varies from yellow to deep brown. It is heavy, hard and is durable under water and in damp conditions. It cracks under direct sunlight. White ants do not attack it. It is used for piles, wooden bridges and door/window panels. It is strong, hard and tough with dark brown in colour. It is likely to crack and to the attack Of dry rot. White ants do not attack it. It takes a smooth finish. It is used for house constructions, boats constructions railway sleepers, structural works etc. Mango: Its color is deep gray. It is easy to work and it maintains its shape toys, ship building, panels for doors and windows etc. palms: It has ripe wood in the outer crust. This dark brown coloured ripe wood is strong and durable. It is fibrous. It is used for furniture, roof covering, rafters, joists etc. Rosewood: It is dark violet or purple brown in color. It is costliest among timbers in India. It is strong, tough, hard and durable. It is available in large sizes. It is used for furniture Of superior quality, aircraft plywood, cabinetwork, ornamental carvings etc. Rubber wood: It is yellowish white in colour. It has a tendency to split and warp. It is easy to saw and workable with hand tools. It takes good form if properly treated. It gives a very good finish. Treated rubber wood can be used for furniture, panel work etc. Untreated rubber wood can be used for packing case, match splints and boxes. Satin wood: It is very hard, durable and coarse grained. Its colour is yellow. It is used for furniture, ornamental works, tool handles etc. Simul: It is white coloured, loose grained and light in weight. It is used for packing cases, cheap furniture, and tea boxes. Teak: It is known as king of timbers. Its color is deep yellow to dark brown. It is moderately Page 17
  18. hard, durable and fire resistant. White ants and dry' rot do not attack it. It does not corrode iron fastenings. It is among the most valuable timber trees Of the world. It is used for house construction, railway carriages, flooring, structural works, shipbuilding, furniture, mallets, agricultural instruments, well kerbs, piles etc. Tamarind: It is a dark brown coloured wood. It is knotty and durable. It is used formwork in concrete construction. It is also used for well kerbs, agricultural instruments. ?ROPERTIF.S OF TIMBER l. Sirengthüimber should be strong enough to effectively act as a structural member such as beam, rafter etc. 2. nard.nßS_Jimber should be hard such that it will be in a position to Offer resistance when it is being penetrated by another body. 3, Fire-resisnm_üimber is a bad conductor Of heat. A good timber should not contain resins & Other inflammable Oils since they accelerate the action Of fire. 4. Structuæ_ It should possess uniform structure. Annular rings should be regular & closely located. 5. Elasticit_u_ Timber should possess this property as such a property is essential when timber is used for bows, carriage shafts, etc. 6. DurabilitWTimber should have a long life. It should be capable during its life span to resist the action of fungi insects, chemicals, physical & mechanical agencies. 7 • should be free from defects such as shakes, dead knots, flaws or any kind. 8. Weights: A quality timber should be of heavy weight & uniform along the length under consideration. 9. should possess straight & close fibres when signify uniformity in the timber. 10. Workability: Timber should be easily workable. It should not clog to the teeth Of the saw. USES OF TIMBER C] Wood has been an important construction material since humans began buildin helters, houses and boats. Page 18
  19. D It is used for all wood construction, including beams, walls, doors, and floors. It is used C] to make solid wood doors It is used In both residential and commercial buildings as C] structural and aesthetic materials. It is used in roof construction, in interior doors and their frames, and as exterior cladding. Wood is also commonly used as shuttering D material to form the mold into which concrete is poured during reinforced concrete construction. It is used for construction work such as railway sleepers or the D construction Of piers. wood may be cut into thin sheets which are subsequently glued together to form a light but strong material called plywood, which is much used for internal construction such as doors, built-in furniture and so on. CEMENT CONCRETE Concrete is one Of the most commonly used building materials. Concrete is a composite material made from several readily available constituents (aggregates, sand, cement, water). Concrete is a versatile material that can easily be mixed to meet a variety Of special needs and formed to_virtually any shape. CONSTITUENT MATERIALS Cement W ater Fine Aggregate Coarse Aggregate Admixtures Portland Cement - The cement and water form a paste that coats the aggregate and sand in the mix. The paste hardens and binds the aggregates and sand together. Water- Water is needed to chemically react with the cement (hydration) and too provide workability with the concrete. Aggregates- Sand is the fine aggregate. Gravel or crushed stone is the coarse aggregate in most mixes. Page 19
  20. Admixtures areadditionstothemix used to achieve certain goals. Some Of the admixtures are: C] C] C] C] C] Accelerating admixture-accelerators are added to concrete to reduce setting time Of theconcreteandtoaccelerate early strength. Retarding admixtures-Are Often used in hot weather conditions to delay setting time. PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE Durability: Abilityofhardened concretetoresistdeterioration caused by weathering, chemicals, and abrasion Workability:Ease0fplacing, handling,andfinishing Weather Resistance : Resistance to deterioration caused by freezing and thawing, wettinganddrying,and heating and cooling Erosion Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by water flow, traffic, and wind blasting Chemical Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by de-icing salts, salt water, sulfate salts Water Tightness: Resistancetowater infiltration Strength Economy: mainly—on —thewatewtcvcemenüratioethe—vvater requirementshould be minimizedto reduce the cementrequirement (and thus reduce cost). Steel is a common building material used in the construction works. It forms a skeleton and holds the structures together. It is 100% recyclable. Steel is an alloy Of iron and carbon with traces Of Other elements. Total carbon content in steel varies from 0.25-1.50,/0. Depending on the carbon content in it:Carbon upto 0.25% - mild steel or soft steel. Used for making motor body, sheet metal, plates etc. (l )Carbon upto 0.25-0.75% - medium carbon steel. Used for making rails, tyres, hammers, springs, die etc. (2)Carbon 0.75-1.25% - high carbon steel. Used for making chisels, hammer, saw, axes etc. Page 20
  21. (3)Carbon > I .25% - extra hard steel/stainless steel. Used for making architectural panels, curtain walls etc. Mainly two types Of steels are used in building constructions: (a)Mild steel (b)HYSD bars. (a)Mi1d steel (MS) bars MS bars are strong in compression and tension. They are plain in surface and are round sections Of diameter 6-50mm. These rods are manufactured in long lengths and can be cut quickly and also be bent easily without any damage. Uses: D etc. D D D Used as rolled steel sections like I-section, T-section, channel section, angle section Used as reinforcement bars in RCC Plain and corrugated sheets Of mild steel are used as roof coverings Construction of buildings, ships, railways, automobiles and electrical industries. (b) High yield strength deformed bars (HYSD bars) They are deformed bars Of high strength. They are rods Of steel produced with ribs or deformations on the surface Of the bar. They have more tensile stresses and bond strengths. Uses Used as reinforcement bars in construction of buildings, bridges, pile foundation etc Used in the manufacture Of smaller member cross sections. The various forms in which rolled steel sections are available are as follows: (1)Angle sections This section has two legs. If the two legs are equal, they are called equal angle section. If the two legs are unequal, they are called unequal angle sections. Angle sections are used in the construction Of steel roof trusses, steel columns, beams etc. (2)Channel sections Page 21
  22. This section consists Of a web and two flanges. These are used as structural members Of steel framed structures. These are used in the construction Of built in columns, beams and steel bridges. (3) T- section These are used as members Of steel roof trusses, built up sections, chimneys, steel bridges etc. (4) I- section Also known as rolled steel joists. These are suitable for beams, columns, lintels. Unequal I- sections with heavy weights are used as rails. (5) Flat bars Available in widths varying from 3-40mm. Used in the construction Of steel grill works, windows and gates. (6) Squarebars They are bars with square cross section. Size varies from 5mm to 25mm. weight ranges from 2N/m — 49N/m. These are used in the construction Of steel grill works, windows and gates etc. (7) Round bars These are bars with circular cross section. Diameter varies from 5-25mm and weight varies from 1.5-38N. These are used as reinforcement in concrete structures, construction Of steel grill works etc. (8) Expanded metals These are formed by cutting and expanding either plain sheets or ribbed sheets. It has an appearance Of diamond mesh. Mesh size varies from 30mm — 150mm across shorter length. These are available in the length Of I — 3m and width 5m. Used as reinforcing foundations, road floors, bridges etc and also used as lathing materials. (9) mates These are available with varying thickness from 5-500 mm weight ranges from 392 N/mm2 - 3925 N/mm2. These are used to connect steel beams for extension Of length and for carrying tensional forces in roof trusses. (10)Corrugated sheets Page 22
  23. These sheets are formed by passing steel sheet through groves, the groves bend and sheets are pressed and thus corrugations are formed. These are used as roof covering materials. (11) Pipes, tubes and steel sheets Pipes are used for light columns and Other structural purposes and as liquid conduits. Tubes are used for framing roof truss and for light structural works, scaffolding etc... (12) Tor steel These are most commonly used steel bar for concrete reinforcement. These are used for general concrete reinforcement in buildings, roads, bridges, walls, dams etc... I sections S.H.S Introduction R.H.S C.H.S Variety Of modern andinnovative materials are used in construction industry now a days, many Of which haveattained high momentum due to its ambience, cost, Durability, reliability, friendlinessand Of easy to adopt technology These materials have definite advantages over theconventional materials. Some Of these materials are discussed in the following sections. 1. Architecture Glass Page 23
  24. Architectural glass is glass that is used as a building material. It is most typically used as transparent glazing material in the building envelope including windows in the external walls. It is also used as internal partitions for its architectural elegance. The types Of glass used in construction are: Normal (Annealed) Glass Laminated Glass Tempered or Toughened Glass Heat Strengthened Glass Reflective Glass Insulating Glass Normal glass is synonymous with flat glass irrespective Of the process Of manufacture. Float glass has a perfectly flat, brilliant surface, whereas sheet glass has slight distortions. Normal is used in residences, shopping malls, hotels, restaurants etc. for windows, shelves, glass doors and partitions. Typesof normal(annealed)glass 1.C1ear Glass It is normal annealed glass, though clear and transparent, it does posses some colour tint usually greenish. It provides a clear view Of the Object across it. Applications:Used in doors, windows, solar applications, shelves etc. 2. Tinted Glass It is normal glass that is coloured by the addition Of metal oxides into molten glass. A tint like green allows more visible light and cut Out infra red radiation. Applications:Used in doors, windows and partitions etc. 3. Patterned, figured or rolled glass It is a decorative and translucent glass with figures or patterns on one face. This type Of glass is usually more fragile and less convenient to clean. Applications: Interiors of buildings, opaque glazing like bathrooms etc. Page 24
  25. 4. Wired Glass It has wire mesh incorporated during its production. Wired glass is recommended for its fire protection property. Applications: Used where normal fire protection is required in windows doors and partitions etc. 5. Extra Clear Glass Extra clear glass is a high value glass, free from impurities such as iron. Applications: It is used for a sparkling display Of expensive materials like jewellery, watches, crystal ware, fine fabrics, art wares, solar applications etc. 6. Ceramic Printed Glass It is also known as silk-screened glass for its appearance like a silk screen. It is not affected by moisture, Oil, soaps, chemicals or detergents and retains its original appearance though Out the life Of the glass. Applications: Curtain walls, shower installations, glass doors, spandrels and partitions etc. 1 A MINATFI) Gl ASS It is composed Of two or more layers Of glass with one or more layers Of a transparent or pigmental and specially treated plastic polyvinyl butyral (P VB) sandwiched between the glass layers. The glass panes (layers) can be either normal glass or tempered glass. When the glass is broken, fragments tend to adhere to the plastic (P VB) interlayer thereby reducing the risk Of injury and helping to resist the further damage by weather. Laminated glass tends to resist impact. In multi-ply configurations, it can even resist bullets, heavy objects or small explosions. Laminated glass is an excellent barrier to noise. Applications: Laminated glass is used in office buildings, restaurants, shopping malls, public walkways, hospitals, libraries, museums, churches, airport terminals, residences and apartment buildings, noise control applications, embassies, computer centres. High security places, for example, banks, tellers and drive-through windows, ticket windows, gas stations, currency exchanges, iewellel"y shops and burglar resistant showcases. Page 25
  26. TEMPERED OR TOUGHENED GLASS Tempered glass is an extremely strong glass which is heat treated to a uniform temperature Of approximately 6500C and rapidly cooled to induce compressive stresses Of 770 kg/m2 to 1462kg/m2 on the surfaces. The heat treatment process does not change the light transmission and solar radiant heat properties Of the glass. Tempered glass is four to five times' stronger an norma g ass 0 equlva ent t IC ess. It IS maln y us or stren an sa ety. Tempered glass provides greater thermal strength. This substantially reduces the likelihood Of injury to people, as there are no jagged edges or sharp corners like normal glass. Applications: It is used in commercial applications such as safety glazing for entranceways, railings, partitions or fire knock-out windows. Tempered glass can be used in balustrades, escalator side panels, handrails, and shower screens, bathtub enclosures, sliding/swing doors, squash, showcases and partitions. It is also used as curtain walls Of high rise buildings, door openings, showroom and lobby facades, escalator side plates, viewing partitions Of sports complexes in resorts and airports. HEAT STRENGTHENED Gl Heat strengthened glass is a type Of tempered glass which has been strengthened thermally by inducing a surface compression Of 422 to 658 Wcm2 as compared to a range Of 770 to 1462 kg/cm2 in case Of fully tempered glass. Heat strengthened glass provides necessary resistance to thermal stress associated with high performance glazing materials such as tinted glass and reflective glass. Applications: Heat Strengthened glass is suitable for spandrel and vision panels Of curtain walls and structural glazing as they safeguards against thermal breakages. It is used for making laminated glass panels for safety combined with strength. It is used in complex glass combinations like double-glazing as one lite Of laminated glass floor and roofs Page 26
  27. REFLECTIVE GLASS f reflection by the glass Of both the visible and infra-red (light and heat) range Of the electromagnetic spectrum. This coating can be applied clear or body tinted glass. The reflective glass -imparts a mirror like appearance -to the exterior heat gain and glare from the exterior and allows visible light transmission to the interior. It also reduces the air conditioning load Of the buildings. An exceptional property Of solar reflective glass is that the coating Of metal oxides on the glass can be achieved without affecting the transparency. Of buildings daytime conditions. most under It reduces Applications: Reflective glass is used in Office buildings, high-rise buildings. Entrance, Privacy windows, Decorative walls. Spandrel glazing,: Vertical and sloped glazing, Solar control applications, Building facades INSUI ,ATING Gl It is a prefabricated unit made Of two or more glass panes, separated by a cavity and edges- hermetically sealed together. This edge seal binds the individual sheets Of glass together to maintain the mechanical strength Of the joint. It also protects the cavity between the glasses from outside influences. The spacer can be aluminum, composite plastics etc. The spacer ensures the precise distance between the glass panes. The cavity is normally filled with dry air but can be also filled with gases such as Argon-krypton for better thermal performance or hydrogen fluro Oxide for better acoustic performance. Applications: Office buildings, hospitals, hotels, houses and buildings with exceptionally high heating or cooling requirements. Airport control towers, windows Of coaches Of trains, and Other environments that need regulated atmosphere and prevention Of condensation. Buildings near highways, railways and airports that need sound insulation property Of insulating glass. Page 27
  28. Ceramics are material Often used in construction, made from a mixture Of minerals, typically silica sand, with a clay binder and some impurities, and water. They are fired at a higher temperature than brick, so that the silica recrystallises to form a glassy material that has greater density, strength, hardness, resistance to chemicals and a greater dimensional stability. The important types Of ceramic products used in construction are the following. 1. Fire clay brick sand tiles These are made from a type Of clay (fire clay) which can withstand high temperatures. Main constituents Of fire clay are silica and alumina. These bricks are used for lining in chimneys, boilers, fireplaces etc. Fire clay tiles are used for flooring and roofing. Bath tubs, sinks are also made from fire clay. 2. Terracotta Terracotta is nothing but 'burned earth'. It is made from yellow to brownish-red clays with a uniformity and fineness between brick and vitrified wall tiles. Terracotta is Often used for flooring tiles, unglazed chimneypots, waste water pipes, air bricks, copings and planters. 3. Faience This is a glazed form Of terracotta or stoneware. The base material may be fired to the 'biscuit' stage before glazing and re-firing or a 'once-fired' process is adapted. Faience tiles are widely used in cladding works and flooring. 4. Stoneware This is similar in composition to fireclay, but is fired at a higher temperature than fireclay and contains a higher proportion Of glass. As a result it is harder and less absorbent. Stone ware tiles and drainage pipes used in construction. 5. Vitreous china It is a mixture Of clay, feldspar and quartz which is molded, glazed and baked at extremely high temperatures. This has high glass content than earthenware, and its water absorption is only about 0.5%, which make it suitable for sanitary fittings. It is stronger than earthenware. 6. Virtified tiles Vitrified tiles are a ceramic tile with very low porosity. Vitrified tiles are made by hydraulic pressing a mixture Of clay, quartz, feldspar and silica, which make vitreous surface thus creating a single mass making them hard with low porosity. Page 28
  29. The vitrified tiles are screen printed with colors and designs. In some cases a layer Of 3-4mm thick double layer pigments is applied to reduce wear and tear. Glazed vitrified tiles have a glazed surface. They Offer a wide variety Of design, art work and surface textures like wood grains, bamboo, slate or stone. Vitrified tiles are used extensively used in modern days, as it gives an appearance similar to marble and granite. It is used in floors Of houses, hotels, hospitals, restaurants, lobbies, auditoriums, shopping malls, and offices. 7. Porcelain Porcelain is very similar to vitreous China, but is Often made from purer materials under more strictly controlled conditions. A special type Of clay either white or grey, to which kaolin ( a white firing stiff clay) and white China stone (finely decayed granite, washed and prepared as small white blocks) is added. Porcelain is used for special uses, such as electrical insulators. PLASTICS Like in any Other field, plastics are used in various applications Of construction. These are briefly described below. Flooring Plastic materials like polyuinyl chloride (PVC) and polyethylene are used to make flooring less prone to wear and tear. It also decreases the sound pollution level and can be cleaned easily. Other floor coverings used are asbestos plastic slabs, vinyl asbestos slabs, semi flexible vinyl slabs, vinyl carpets; thermosetting resin based covering and synthetic fibre tensile covering. Roofing TO protect the outer surface Of the roof from damage, 2 layers Of different plastic materials are required. The upper part is made Of coloured thermoplastic olefin or vinyl while the lower part consists Of polyurethane foam which consumes less energy and keeps the interior Of a house cooler. Insulation Page 29
  30. CFR A MICR Insulation materials and application Of foams in building construction are, I. Polystyrene 2. PVC 3. Phenolic 4.Formaldehyde urea 5. Polyurethane Walls Sandwich wall panels are made with various plastic compounds are given below. l) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) PVC, plasticized plates and polyurethane foams Asbestos cement covering and polyurethane foam core. Polystyrene foam core and various coverings Polyster laminated sheet and polyurethane foam core Enameled iron covering and polyurethane foam core Covering with polyster laminated sheet glued to asbestos cement and polystyrene foam core. Wall Lining Adhering films-vinyl coated fabrics or paper vinyl sheet doubling on fabric or paper etc. Sprayed lining polyurethane Laminate-melamine and phenolic plastics- polyster Wall tiles- polystyrene, PVC — tiles or mosaic Coating-polyv'inyl acetate Pipes Commonly made up Of polyvinyl chloride (PVC), CPVC, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) or polyethylene, plastic pipes are flexible and very light in weight, making them easy to install. All Of these plastic materials are also highly chemical and water resistant, making them suitable for very extreme environments. Windows Polycarbonate is used to manufacture building windows. This plastic material is strong, clear and very light in weight. Polycarbonate windows are considered more burglar- proof Page 30
  31. than regular glass windows. Fiberglass is extremely strong while vinyl is quite durable and also inexpensive. PVC windows and ventilators are very common nowadays. Doors Some construction projects use doors made from stiff polyurethane foam core with fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) coating. The sandwich structure Of these doors makes them incredibly strong. COMPOSITE MATERIALS Composite material, also called composite, is a solid material that results two or more different materials, are combined to create a new substance whose properties are superior to those Of the original components in a specific application Composite materials are used globally in building and construction and provide significant advantages over traditional building materials. Application areas include structural components, cladding and facades, roofing, doors and windows, acoustics, rehabilitation, and the fabrication Of unique structures and components. Major types Of engineered composite materials include a)Reinforced concrete and masonry b)Composite wood such as plywood. c)Reinforced plastics, such as fiber-reinforced polymer or fiberglass. d)Ceramic matrix composites ( composite ceramic and metal matrices) e)Metal matrix composites f) Other advanced composite materials Classification of composites is based on two criteria I )Based on matrix 2)Based on reinforcement Classification based on matrix Page 31 Downloaded from Ktunotes.in
  32. Polymer Matrix Composites Thermosets Matrices Metal Matrix Composites Thermoplastics Ceramic Matrix Composites Examples for thermosets — epoxy, polyesters etc. Examples for thermoplastics — Teflon, PVC, Nylon, Polypropylene etc. Examples for Ceramic Matrix Composite — mullite Page 32
  33. Classification based on reinforcement Composites Fiber-r einforced Panicle-reinforced Dispersion- strengthened Structural Laminates Large- Particle Continuous (aligned) Aligned Discontinu«rs (Short) Randomly Chiented Sandwich pan els Particle boards, fibre reinforced plastic (FRP), laminated sheets, glass fibre reinforced board, ply boards, sandwich panels are the examples Of composites. THERMAL INSULATING MATERIALS Thermal insulating materials have property that reduces the heat transfer between objects in thermal contact i.e.; the transfer Of thermal energy between objects Of differing temperature. Most commonly used types of materials are the following. 1. Fiberglass Fiberglass is the most common insulation used in modern times. It is made, by effectively weaving fine strands Of stands Of glass into an insulation material; fiberglass is able to minimize heat transfer. But since fiberglass is made out Of finely woven silicon, glass powder and tiny shards Of glass are formed. These can cause damage to the eyes, lungs, and even skin if the proper safety equipment is not used while handling it. 2. Mineral wool Mineral wool is Of three types. Glass wool which is fiberglass manufactured from recycled glass. Rock wool which is a type Of insulation made from basalt rock. And slag wool which is produced from steel mills. Page 33
  34. Mineral wool can be purchased in bats or as a loose material. Most mineral wool does not have additives to make it fire resistant; it can be used only with any fire resistant material in such situations. 3. Cellulose Cellulose insulation is one Of the most eco-friendly forms Of insulation. Cellulose is made from recycled cardboard, paper, and Other similar materials and comes in loose form.Also it is one Of the most fire resistant forms Of insulation. Even though the insulation using cellulose requires more skill and hard to apply, cellulose is a cheap and effective means Of insulating 4. Polyurethane Foam Polyurethane foams are excellent foam Of insulation because Of its insulating capacity, light weight and fire resistance. There are also low density foams that can be sprayed into areas that have no insulation. The only disadvantage is that polyurethane forms are not eco friendly. 5. Polystyrene Polystyrene is waterproof thermoplastic foam which is an excellent sound and temperature insulation material. It comes in two types, expanded (EPS) and extruded (XEPS) also known as Styrofoam. The two types differ in performance ratings and cost. Polystyrene insulation has a uniquely smooth surface which no Other type Of insulation possesses. 6. Aerogel and Pyrogel Recently, materials like aerogel (for the construction of heat resistant tiles, capable Of withstanding heat up to approximately 2000 degrees Fahrenheit with little or no heat transfer used by NASA), have become affordable and available. One in particular is Pyrogel XT. Pyrogel is one Of the most efficient industrial insulations in the world. Its required thicknesses are 50% - 80% less than Other insulation materials. Page 34
  35. ACOUSTIC INSULATING MATERIALS Sound proofing is any means Of reducing the sound pressure with respect to a specified sound source and receptor. Materials used for sound insulation are called acoustic insulating materials. Commonly used insulating materials are given below. 1)Acoustic Foam — This material, commonly called Studio Foam, has a distinctive wedge or pyramid shape that is highly effective at absorbing sound. They attach to walls as panels, hang from ceilings as baffles, or sit in corners as bass traps. 2)Sound Insulation batts — Sound insulation are batts made Of mineral wool, rock wool, and fiberglass, designed to fit in between the studs of walls. The batts fit snugly between studs to take up airspace that can transmit sound. 3)Acoustic Panels/ Boards — These are decorative versions Of sound insulation and sound absorbing foam. They are available in many appealing colors, patterns, and fabrics to serve a dual purpose in the home and workplace. 4)Acoustic Fabrics — Acoustical fabrics are thicker and heavier than Other fabrics and used in theater curtains, blackout curtains, and studio blankets. 5)Acoustic Coatings — Materials like Mass Loaded Vinyl (ML V) is a dense rubber like material, used in many different situations such as car soundproofing, machinery, appliances, and as an underlayment. The mass Of the material acts as a sound barrier. 6)Floor Underlayment — Sound proofing a hardwood or tile floor requires the decoupling Of the flooring surface and the subfloor to reduce the noise transmission. Cork, felt, and polymers are commonly used as underlayment materials. 7)Architectural Soundproofing — This group includes anything used in the structure Of a building, such as soundproof windows, soundproof walls, doors, and decoupling products used to install them. DECORATIVE PANELS Page 35
  36. DECORATIVE PANELS Decorative panels are mainly used for walls to improve the ambience Of rooms, lobbies etc. These are inevitable parts in interior design Of any buildings. The panels are to be waterproof, moisture-proof, fire-retardant and termite-proof. Different patterns and 3D effects are available for decorative panels. The main types Of decorative panels are the following. C] C] Natural wood wall Panels: These are made Of natural wood. These panels come in diverse designs. They fit into classic interiors as well as for simple looks without any décor. Teak, Rose wood, Oak and cedar woods are used for it. Chip board, Fibre board, MDF wall Panels: Panels made Of these materials are easy to work, made to any shape, but less strong and not suitable for offices and big living rooms. Gypsum Panels: Also called as 3D panels, today they are one among the most popular decorative panels in the market. They are sensitive to moisture and can be used ideally in Office, living room or bed room but not in a balcony. 3D panels 100k quite stylish. Fabric panels: They are decorative panels which are soft to touch. Most popular designs are rectangles and squares and are used to decorate night clubs and restaurants. They can be installed as head of beds or for one wall in the bedroom. Leather panels: They are similar to fabric decorative panels. They have the same soft texture. They are expensive and incredibly beautiful. They can be used in bedrooms, office rooms; hallways and living room. Glass Panels: Are design to create photographic images that require durable base. They have several disadvantages. But with careful operation can last quite a long time. PVC Panels: The plastic wall panels are also new materials made Of a rigid polyvinyl chloride with a minimum amount Of plasticizers. The panels can be safely used for almost any room, even in the shower, because they have a number Of advantages: water resistance, fire resistance, they are hygienic, long life. Plastic panels are most popular option among others. Page 36
  37. WATER PROOFING MATERIALS Many situations, the building envelopes are to be made water proof for various purposes especially like water retaining structures, roofs, washroom, walls and floors etc. This also requires in repair and rehabilitation works. In waterproofing a layer Of impervious material is applied which prevents water from penetrating, which makes the structure waterproof or water-resistant so that it remains relatively unaffected by water or resisting the ingress Of water. Commonly used materials for water proofing in buildings are cementations material, bituminous material, liquid water proofing membrane and polyurethane liquid membrane etc. 1. Cementitious materials 2. Cement mortar or slurry based materials added with suitable adhesives are used in places like wet areas like toilet and bathrooms. This is a semi-flexible or rigid type Of water proofing and nor exposed to weathering or sunlight. Liquid waterproofing membrane As the name suggests, liquid water proofing membrane come in liquid forms and after the application it dries to form a seamless, smooth and continuous barrier to water. A primer coat and two coats Of top coats which are applied by spray, roller or trowel, it Offers more flexibility than the cementitious types of water proofing. a)Acrylic liquid membrane Acrylic polymers resins are main constituent Of acrylic water proofing membrane. Pigments, plasticizers and fire retarders are also added. b)POIyurethane liquid membrane Polyurethane based liquid emulsion is used for surfaces which exposed to weathering. Polyurethane liquid membrane can Offer higher flexibility. Polyurethane is very sensitive to moisture content. Though this membrane is costly, it offers good water proofing due to its high flexibility. c)Bituminous emulsion membrane Bituminous emulsion is used for coatings for water proofing. The most common applications Of bituminous coatings include areas that are beneath screed wet. Page 37
  38. 3. Pre formed water proofing membrane Preformed membranes are sheets made Of flexible materials like bitumen, PVC or rubber etc.These are pasted by means Of heating or gluing on the surface to be water proofed. Mostcommon type is bituminous membrane. Bituminous sheets (Tar Felt sheets) are used asbituminous membrane 4. Waterproofing paints Anumber Of waterproofing paints Of different manufactures are available in the market. Thesecan be applied on the surfaces after cleaning and removing the moisture like any other-painting. Mainly used on exterior walls, terraces, sunshades and floors. Many Of themlast for certain years. The verities are I .Masonry paint -made from ceramics and latex. It is mostly used for concrete/cinder blocks, bricks, cement, and stones. 2.Acrylic paint-are water based and used for concrete, wood, masonry and clay tiles. 3.Epoxy paint - Epoxy paint is used in majority form for industries such as for commercial, industrial, construction, agricultural and for electronics. A variety ofmaterialsand building components using gypsum turned Out in large volumes in modern constructionindustry. Important uses are described in the following sections. GYPSUM.BOARD It is a panel made Ofcalcium sulfate dihydrate (gypsum), with or without additives, typically extruded between thick sheets Of facer and backer paper, used in the construction Of interior walls and ceilings. Gypsum boards are used for partitions and lining Of walls, ceilings, roofs and floors. The properties Of gypsum board can be modified to fire resistant, humidity resistant and impact resistant. Advantages Of gypsum board include its low cost, ease Of installation and finishing, fire resistance, non-toxicity, sound attenuation, and availability. Disadvantages include: difficulty in curved-surface application and low durability when subject to damage from impact or abrasion. Page 38
  39. GYPSUM FIBRE BOARD The board is the paperless gypsum board taking fiber reinforced gypsum as the base. The or organic fibers are Often used as with building gypsum into gypsum boards. soun proo prope les, boards are used fur GYPSUM WALLS and retardant and then are paved, dehydrated, shaped, and dried The boards have light weight, high strength, fireproof and as we as lg Oug ness, an are easy 0 e processe . ese partitions, cupboard works. GLASS FIBRE REINFORCED Thesewallsare molded using glassfibrereinforced gypsum as pre fabricated with dimensions 12m long 3m wide and 124mm thick. Thesewalls are cellular in form and weighs 45kg/sq.m. Using these walls, prefabricated buildings aredone. The advantages are: Reduced time Of construction and space saving Flexible in all aspects of home design Light weight with high quality finish Fire, water termite and not resistant Earthquake resistant Environment friendly FACT manufactures this type of walls under the trade name 'Prefab Gypwall' GYPSUM PLASTER Gypsum Plaster,white cementing material made by partial or complete dehydration of the mineral gypsum, commonly with special retarders or hardeners added. Applied in a plastic state (with water), it sets and hardens by chemical recombination Of the gypsum with water. Gypsum plaster offers good acoustic, thermal and fire resistance. NO post curing is required. Painting can be done just after 48 hours. PRE FABRICATED BUILDING COMPONENTS Prefabrication is the practice Of assembling components Of a structure in a factory or Other manufacturing site, and transporting complete assemblies or sub-assemblies to the construction site where the structure is to be located. This work is carried Out in two stages. a) Manufacturing Of components in a place b) Erection in position Page 39
  40. The following are the main components which are frequently used in prefabricated buildings 1. Roof/S1ab Slabs are horizontal members to act as floors or roofs. In prefab construction, it is achieved by placing slab segments over beams and grouted by concrete. The usual widths Of these types Of slabs are 0.5 m and spanning to the requirement up to a maximum limit Of 5 m without pre-stressing. The different types Of slab panels are A. Solid flat slab B. Hollow core slab C. Single Tee slab D. Double tee slab Solid nat 2. Beams Precast Slab The beams are cast for the clear distance between the columns. A square Of 10 cm x 10 cm whole or a depth Of 10 cm is provided on either side to achieve the connection with Other beam reinforcement or column reinforcement by proper wielding. Normally beams are placed over concrete haunch made on columns are in shown in figure Typical sections Of prefabricated beams are shown in figure. Inverted Tee AASHTO Beam Page 40
  41. 3 Columns Acolumnisa vertical member carrying the beam and floor loadings to the foundation. Many type Of columns available in prefabricated system. The main types of prefabricated columns are: I. The main types Of prefabricated columns are: 2.Edge columns- symmetrical in one direction. 3.1nternal columns- symmetrical in all direction Haunches are provided at the top to support beams on columns. Grooves are provided on the required faces to keep the walls in position. These walls in grooves will act as a part Of column and since the area Of column has been increased due to walls. 4. Wall panels A wall panelisa single piece Of material like concrete, timber, masonry etc. usually flat and cut into a rectangular shape. There are generally four types Of prefabricated panels used as part Of building envelopes: l. Cladding or curtain walls: These types of prefab concrete panels do not transfer vertical loads but simply enclosed space. The wall panels are cast with all fixing like doors, ventilation, and window frames. Page 41
  42. 2.Load bearing walls: Load bearing wall units resist and transfer loads from Other elements and cannot be removed without affecting strength or stability Of the building 3. Shear walls: concrete shear wall panels are used to provide lateral load resisting system when combined with diaphragm action Of the floor construction. Form work for cast- in- place concrete: In some cases prefab panels are used as form work for cast in place concrete. The prefab panels acts as a form providing the visible aesthetics Of the system while the cast- in-place portion provide the structural components Of the system. . What are different types Of architectural glass? 2. List Out the uses Of ceramics in construction? 3. Explain different types of thermal insulating materials? 4. Explain different types Of acoustic insulating materials? 5. What are the composites? 6. Explain the modern uses Of gypsum? 7. What are difficult prefabricated components? Page 42

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