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Consumer Behaviour

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Published in: Management Subjects
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An insight of Consumer Behaviour

Ayon R / Kolkata

13 years of teaching experience

Qualification: MBA/PGDM (L.P.U. (PUNJAB) - 2014), CS (I.C.S.I. (INSTITUTE OF COMPANY SECRETARIES OF INDIA) - 2013), B.Com (UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA - 2010), Integrated PG (C.I.M.A. (U.K) - 2013), PG Diploma (PRACHEEN KALA KENDRA CHANDIGARH - 2014)

Teaches: CA - CPT, CMA Foundation, CS - Foundation, ICWA & ICWAI, Accountancy, Business Studies, Commerce Subjects, Economics, B.Com Tuition, BBA Tuition, Bank Clerical, IBPS, BBA Subjects, Management Subjects, Tabla

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  1. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR UNIT 2. CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR. 1. Communication Persuasion. In order to create persuasive communications, the sponsor (who may be person, a for-profit company, or a not-for-profit group) must first establish the objectives of the communication, then select the appropriate audience for the message and the appropriate media through which to reach them, and then design (encode) the message in a manner that is appropriate to each medium and to each audience. The communications strategy should also include a prior feedback mechanism that alerts the sponsor to any need for modifications or adjustments to the media or the message. UNIT 3. CONSUMER DECISION MAKING PROCESS. 1. PERSONAL INFLUENCE IN CONSUMER DECISION MAKING PROCESS. Possibly the most challenging concept in marketing deals with understanding why buyers do what they do (or don't do). But such knowledge is critical for marketers since having a strong understanding of buying behavior will help shed light on what is important to customer and also suggest the important influences on customer decision making. There are many factors that can affect Buying process of a customer, let us shed some light on some personal factors which influence the buying process of the customer. 1. Age and Life cycle Stage:Like the social class the human life cycle can have a significant impact on consumer behaviour. The life cycle is an orderly series of stages in which consumer attitude and behavioural tendencies evolve and occur because of developing maturity, experience, income, and status. Marketers often define their target market in terms of the consumers present lifecycle stage. The concept of lifecycle as applied to marketing will be discussed in more details. 2. Occupation And Income: Today people are very concerned about their image and the status in the society which is a direct outcome of their material prosperity. The profession or the occupation a person is in again has an impact on the products they consume.
  2. The status of a person is projected through various symbols like the dress, accessories and possessions. 3. Life Style: Our life styles are reflected in our personalities and self- concepts, same is the case with any consumer. We need to know what a life-style is made of. It is a person's mode of living as identified by his or her activities, interest and opinions. There is a method of measuring a consumer's lifestyle. This method is called as the psychographics-which is the analysis technique used to measure consumer lifestyles- peoples activities, interests and opinions. Then based upon the combinations of these dimensions, consumers are classified. Unlike personality typologies, which are difficult to describe measure lifestyle analysis has proven valuable in segmenting and targeting consumers according to their lifestyle classification. 4. Personality: Personality is the sum total of an individual's enduring internal psychological traits that make him or her unique. Self- confidence, dominance, autonomy, sociability, defensiveness, adaptability, and emotional stability are selected personality traits. 2. THE CONSUMER DECISION MAKING PROCESS. The store manager showed Tim all the samples available with him and explained him the features and specifications of each model. This is called information. Tim before buying the laptop checked few other options as well. The information can come from various other sources such as newspaper, websites, magazines, advertisements, billboards etc. This explains the consumer buying decision process. A consumer goes through several stages before purchasing a product or service. NEED INFORMATION GATHERING/SEARCH EVALUATION OF ALTERNATIVES PURCHASE OF PRODUCT/SERVICE POST PURCHASE EVALUATION Step 1 - Need is the most important factor which leads to buying of products and 1. services. Need infact is the catalyst which triggers the buying decision of individuals.
  3. 2. 3. 4. 5. An individual who buys cold drink or a bottle of mineral water identifies his/her need as thirst. However in such cases steps such as information search and evaluation of alternatives are generally missing. These two steps are important when an individual purchases expensive products/services such as laptop, cars, mobile phones and so on. Step 2 - When an individual recognizes his need for a particular product/service he tries to gather as much information as he can. An individual can acquire information through any of the following sources: Personal Sources - He might discuss his need with his friends, family members, co workers and other acquaintances. Commercial sources - Advertisements, sales people (in Tim's case it was the store manager), Packaging of a particular product in many cases prompt individuals to buy the same, Displays (Props, Mannequins etc) Public sources - Newspaper, Radio, Magazine Experiential sources - Individual's own experience, prior handling of a particular product (Tim would definitely purchase a Dell laptop again if he had already used one) Step 3 - The next step is to evaluate the various alternatives available in the market. An individual after gathering relevant information tries to choose the best option available as per his need, taste and pocket. Step 4 - After going through all the above stages, customer finally purchases the product. Step 5 - The purchase of the product is followed by post purchase evaluation. Post purchase evaluation refers to a customer's analysis whether the product was useful to him or not, whether the product fulfilled his need or not? UNIT 4 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND SOCIETY. 1. Consumer behavior in Health Care Marketing. Health care Health care, or healthcare, is the treatment and management of illness, and the preservation of health through senvices offered by the medical, dental, complementary and alternative medicine, pharmaceutical, clinical sciences (in vitro diagnostics), nursing, and allied health professions. Health care embraces all the goods and services designed to promote health, including preventive, curative and palliative interventions, whether directed to individuals or to populations". The definition of health care is continuously evolving and varies significantly between different cultures. Before the term health care became popular, English-speakers referred to medicine or to the health sector and spoke of the treatment and prevention of illness and disease. The social and political issue of access to healthcare in the US has led to public debate and confusing use of terms such as "health care" (medical management of illness or disease), health insurance (reimbursement of health care costs), and the public health (the collective state and range of health in a population).
  4. Healthcare in India A growing healthcare sector Healthcare is one of India's largest sectors, in terms of revenue andemployment, and the sector is expanding rapidly. During the 1990s, Indian healthcare grew at a compound annual rate of 16%. Today the total value of the sector is more than $34 billion. This translates to $34 per capita, or roughly 6% of GDP. By 2012, India's healthcare sector is projected to grow to nearly $40 billion. The private sector accounts for more than 80% of total healthcarespending in India. Unless there is a decline in the combined federal and state government deficit, which currently stands at roughly 9%, the opportunity for significantly higher public health spending will be limited. One driver of growth in the healthcare sector is India's boomingpopulation, currently 1.1 billion and increasing at a 2% annual rate. By 2030, India is expected to surpass China as the world's most populous nation. By 2050, the population is projected to reach 1.6billion Expanding middle class India traditionally has been a rural, agrarian economy. Nearly threequarters of the population still lives in rural areas, and as of 2004, anestimated 27-5% of Indians were living below the national poverty line. Some 300 million people in India live on less than a dollar a day, and more than 50% of all children are malnourished. Rise of disease Another factor driving the growth of India's healthcare sector is a rise in both infectious and chronic degenerative diseases. While ailments such as poliomyelitis, leprosy, and neonatal tetanus will soon be eliminated, some communicable diseases once thought to be under control, such as dengue fever, viral hepatitis, tuberculosis, malaria, and pneumonia, have returned in force or have developed a stubborn resistance to drugs. This troubling trend can be attributed in part to substandard housing, inadequate water, sewage and waste management systems, a crumbling public health infrastructure, and increased air travel Pharmaceuticals Paralleling the rise of disease is the emergence of a robust pharmaceutical industry in India. The Indian pharmaceutical market is one
  5. of the fastest growing markets in the world; sales increased by 17-5% to $7-3 billion in 2006, according to IMS Health. Many factors, including a strong economy and the country's growing healthcare needs have contributed to the accelerated growth, which is especially strong in the over-the-counter OTC. The healthcare divide When it comes to healthcare, there are two Indias: the country thatprovides high-quality medical care to middle-class Indians and medical tourists, and the India in which the majority of the population lives—a country whose residents have limited or no access to quality care. Today only 25% of the Indian population has access to Western (allopathic) medicine, which is practiced mainly in urban areas, where two-thirds of India's hospitals and health centers are located. Many of the rural poor must rely on alternative forms of treatment, such as ayurvedic medicine, unani and acupuncture. Opportunities within India healthcare sector Emerging health insurance market In recent years, there has been a liberalization of the Indian healthcare sector to allow for a much-needed private insurance market to emerge. Due to liberalization and a growing middle class with increased spending power, there has been an increase in the number of insurance policies issued in the country. In 2001-02, 7-5 million policies were sold. By 2003-04, the number of policies issued had increased by 37%, to 10.3 million. Growth of telemedicine Only 25% of India's specialist physicians reside in semi-urban areas, and a mere 3 % live in rural areas. As a result, rural areas, with a population approaching 700 million, continue to be deprived of proper healthcare facilities. Healthcare infrastructure expansion An enormous amount of private capital will be required in the coming years to enhance and expand India's healthcare infrastructure to meet the needs of a growing population and an influx of medical tourists. Currently India has approximately 860 beds per million population. This is only one-fifth of the world average, which is 3,960, according to the World Health Organization. It is estimated that 450,000 additional hospital beds will be required by 2010—an investment estimated at $25-7 billion. The government is expected to contribute only 15-20% of the total, providing an enormous opportunity for private players to fill the gap
  6. Medical equipment market The rebuilding of India's healthcare infrastructure, combined with the emergence of medical tourism and telemedicine, will drive strong demand for medical equipment, such as x-ray machines, CT scanners and electrocardiograph (EKG) machines. Leading international companies market most high value medical equipment, while only consumables and disposable equipment are made locally. Many international companies have expanded their operations in the Indian market in recent years and established manufacturing facilities to assemble equipment for the domestic market and export sales. The competition is expected to intensify with the entry of more global firms into the medical equipment marketplace. The government is encouraging the growth of this market, throughpolicies such as a reduction in import duties on medical equipment, higher depreciation on life-saving medical equipment (40%, up from 25%), and a number of other tax incentives. Pharmaceutical industry opportunities Despite widespread poverty and inadequate public healthcare provision, India has much to offer the leading drug makers. An increase in lifestyle diseases resulting from the adoption of unhealthy western diets, combined with a growing middle class that has more disposable income to spend on treatment, will provide new opportunities for global pharmaceutical firms. Manufacturing India has emerged as a major supplier of several bulk drugs, producing these at lower prices compared to formulation producers worldwide. The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) already has approved 85 Active Pharmaceutical Ingredient (API) and formulation plants in India, the highest such number outside the US. India is poised to become a major exporter of pharmaceuticals, particularly generic and OTC drugs, to global markets. By 2010, India could be producing 15% of the world's bulk pharmaceuticals and drug intermediates. However, achieving that level of growth will require an estimated $1.2 billion investment in production capacity.Many multinational generics companies have been sourcing products from Indian manufacturers for some years. Some also use Indian contract manufacturers to manufacture the finished product. Contract manufacturing, currently estimated at $350 million, is expected to reach $lbillion by 2010, according to CRISIL. Pharmaceutical research
  7. 2. 3. Pharmaceutical research is one area that is expected to achievetremendous growth in the coming decade, due to India's huge andgrowing population, low per capita drug usage, and increasing incidence of disease. Global pharmaceutical alliances with Indian drug firms are finally beginning to look like a two-way street, with major R&D deals. Clinical trials India historically lacked the expertise to perform clinical trials, because most companies only tested different processes for producing copycat versions of Western products, and the rules were quite lenient. Several drug makers have also been caught behaving unethically or even illegally. POLITICAL MARKETING. Political marketing has borrowed and adapted many terms from mainstream marketing, such as image management (segmentation, targeting, and positioning) and consumer (voter). In marketing, the terms "user" and "usage" have been established, yet their application to political marketing is less clear. This paper analyzes the feasibility and usefulness of usage in the political context. Drawing from the literature on usage, a model is developed and applied to four voting environments: Britain, Australia, Russia, and Belarus. One critical factor that emerges is the concept of choice, whereby the voter may chose to indicate their preference for one party yet be forced to use a different party as chosen by collective choice. Another issue is the potential for habitual voting behavior to limit decision making. It is concluded that usage needs to be contextualized specifically for political marketing. SOCIAL MARKETING. The social marketing is a marketing concept that holds that a company should make marketing decisions by considering consumers' wants, the company's requirements, and society's long-term interests. The social marketing concept holds that the organization's task is to determine the needs, wants, and interests of a target market and to deliver the desired satisfactions more effectively and efficiently than competitors in a way that preserves or enhances the consumer's and the society's well- being. Therefore, marketers must endeavor to satisfy the needs and wants of their target markets in ways that preserve and enhance the well-being of consumers and society as a whole. It is closely linked with the principles of corporate social responsibility and of sustainable development.
  8. 4. ENVIRONMENTAL MARKETING. According to the American Marketing Association, green marketing is the marketing of products that are presumed to be environmentally safe. Thus green marketing incorporates a broad range of activities, including product modification, changes to the production process, packaging changes, as well as modifying advertising. Other similar terms used are Environmental Marketing and Ecological Marketing. Thus "Green Marketing" refers to holistic marketing concept wherein the production, marketing consumption an disposal of products and services happen in a manner that is less detrimental to the environment with growing awareness about the implications of global warming, non-biodegradable solid waste, harmful impact of pollutants etc., both marketers and consumers are becoming increasingly sensitive to the need for switch in to green products and services. While the shift to green" may appear to be expensive in the short term, it will definitely prove to be indispensable and advantageous, cost-wise too, in the long run. GREEN PRODUCTS AND ITS CHARACTERISTICS The products those are manufactured through green technology and that caused no environmental hazards are called green products. Promotion of green technology and green products is necessary for conservation of natural resources and sustainable development. We can define green products by following measures: • Products those are originally grown, • Products those are recyclable, reusable and biodegradable, • Products with natural ingredients, • Products containing recycled contents, non-toxic chemical, • Products contents under approved chemical, • Products that do not harm or pollute the environment, • Products that will not be tested on animals, • Products that have eco-friendly packaging i.e. reusable ,refillable containers etc. CHALLENGES IN GREEN MARKETING 1.Need for Standardization It is found that only 5% of the marketing messages from "Green" campaigns are entirely true and there is a lack of standardization to authenticate these claims. There is no standardization to authenticate these claims. There is no standardization currently in place to certify a product as organic. Unless some regulatory bodies are involved in providing the certifications there will not be any verifiable means. A standard quality control board needs to be in place for such labeling and licensing. 2.New Concept Indian literate and urban consumer is getting more aware about the merits of Green products. But it is still a new concept for the masses. The consumer needs to be educated and made aware of the environmental threats. The new green movements
  9. 5. need to reach the masses and that will take a lot of time and effort. By India's ayurvedic heritage, Indian consumers do appreciate the importance of using natural and herbal beauty products. Indian consumer is exposed to healthy living lifestyles such as yoga and natural food consumption. In those aspects the consumer is already aware and will be inclined to accept the green products. 3.Patience and Perseverance The investors and corporate need to view the environment as a major long-term investment opportunity, the marketers need to look at the long-term benefits from this new green movement. It will require a lot of patience and no immediate results. Since it is a new concept and idea, it will have its own acceptance period. 4.Avoiding Green Myopia The first rule of green marketing is focusing on customer benefits i.e. the primary reason why consumers buy certain products in the first place. Do this right, and motivate consumers to switch brands or even pay a premium for the greener alternative. It is not going to help if a product is developed which is absolutely green in various aspects but does not pass the customer satisfaction criteria. This will lead to green myopia. Also if the green products are priced very high then again it will lose its market acceptability. EXAMPLES OF GREEN MARKETING IN INDIA:- I.Digital Tickets by Indian Railways. :- Recently IRCTC has allowed its customers to carry PNR no. of their E-Tickets on their laptop and mobiles. Customers do not need to carry the printed version of their ticket anymore. 2.No Polythene carry bags for free :-Forest & Environmental Ministry of India has ordered to retail outlets like BigBazar,More,Central,D-Mart etc that they could provide polythene carry bags to customers only if customers are ready for pay for it. PUBLIC POLICY AND CONSUMER PROTECTION. In regulatory jurisdictions that provide for this (a list including most or all developed countries with free market economies) consumer protection is a group of laws and organizations designed to ensure the rights of consumers, as well as fair trade, competition, and accurate information in the marketplace. The laws are designed to prevent the businesses that engage in fraud or specified unfair practices from gaining an advantage over competitors. They may also provide additional protection for those most vulnerable in society. Consumer protection laws are a form of government regulation that aim to protect the rights of consumers. For example, a government may require businesses to disclose detailed information about products—particularly in areas where safety or public health is an issue, such as food. Consumer protection is linked to the idea of consumer rights, and to the formation of consumer organizations, which help consumers make better choices in the marketplace and get help with consumer complaints. Other organizations that promote consumer protection include government organizations and self-regulating business organizations such as consumer protection agencies and organizations, ombudsmen, the Federal Trade Commission in America, and Better Business Bureaus in America and Canada, etc.
  10. A consumer is defined as someone who acquires goods or services for direct use or ownership rather than for resale or use in production and manufacturing.[l] Consumer interests can also be protected by promoting competition in the markets which directly and indirectly serve consumers, consistent with economic efficiency, but this topic is treated in competition law. Consumer protection can also be asserted via non-government organizations and individuals as consumer activism. UNIT 5 CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR AND MARKET RESEARCH. 1. RELEVANCE OF MARKETING INFORMATION SYSTEM. With an increasingly competitive and expanding market, the amount of information needed daily by an organization is profound. Thus they have to establish a Marketing Information system. There are several advantages of Marketing information systems 1) Organized Data collection — Lots of data can be collected from the market. But the main word here is "Organized". Organizing data is very important else the data is meaningless. Thus MIS helps you to organize your database thereby improving productivity. 2) A broad perspective— With a proper MIS in place, the complete organization can be tracked which can be used to analyse independent processes. This helps in establishing a broader perspective which helps us know which steps can be taken to facilitate improvement. 3) Storage of Important Data— Several times in pharmaceuticals, when one drug is being produced they may need data of another drug which was produced years back. Similarly in Media, photographs are stored in archives. This storage of important data plays a crucial role in execution and thus proves again that MIS is not important only for information but also for execution. 4) Avoidance of Crisis— The best way to analyse a stock (share market) is to see its past performance. Top websites like moneycontrol thrive on MIS. Similarly MIS helps you keep tracks of margins and profits. With an amazing information system established, you can know where your organization is moving and probably avert a crisis long before it has taken place. Ignoring hints received from MIS reports is foolhardy.
  11. 2. 5) Co-ordination — Consumer durables and FMCG companies have huge number of processes which needs to be co-ordinated. These companies depend completely on MIS for the proper running of the organization. There are dedicated people for marketing information systems in such organizations. This is mainly because of the speed required to access information and implement it. 7) Analysis and Planning — MIS is critical for planning. You cannot do planning without information. For planning, the first thing which is needed is the organizations capabilities, then the business environment and finally competitor analysis. In a proper MIS, all these are present by default and are continuously updated. Thus MIS is very important for planning and analysis. 8) Control — Just like MIS can help in a crisis, in normal times it provides control as you have information of the various processes going on and what is happening across the company. Thus it provides you with a sense of control. RELEVANCE OF MARKETING RESEARCH. Market research is any organized effort to gather information about target markets or customers. It is a very important component of business strategy.[llThe term is commonly interchanged with marketing research; however, expert practitioners may wish to draw a distinction, in that marketing research is concerned specifically about marketing processes, while market research is concerned specifically with markets.[2] Market research is one of the key factors used in maintaining competitiveness over competitors. Market research provides important information to identify and analyze the market need, market size and competition. Market-research techniques encompass both qualitative techniques such as focus groups, in-depth interviews, and ethnography, as well as quantitative techniques such as customer surveys, and analysis of secondary data.[3] Market research, which includes social and opinion research, is the systematic gathering and interpretation of information about individuals or organizations using statistical and analytical methods and techniques of the applied social sciences to gain insight or support decision making .14] IMPORTANCE OF MERKETING RESEARCH. Need and Importance of Marketing Research! The most important task of a marketer is to get the right product at the right place with the right price to the right person. Besides, it was also necessary to go back and find whether consumer is getting optimum
  12. satisfaction, so that consumer remains loyal. These aspects made it imperative for the marketers to conduct marketing research. The following points explain the need for and importance of marketing research: 1. Identifying problem and opportunities in the market: It helps in identifying new market opportunities for existing and new products. It provides information on market share, nature of competition, customer satisfaction levels, sales performances and channel of distribution. This helps the firms is solving problems. 2. Formulating market strategies: Today, markets are no more local. They have become global. Manufactures find it difficult to contact customers and control distribution channels. Competition is equally severe. The consumer needs are difficult to predict. Market segmentation is a complicated task in such wide markets. The marketing intelligence provided through marketing research not only helps in framing but also in implementing the market strategies. 3. Determining consumer needs and wants: Marketing has become customer-centric. However, large-scale production needs intermediaries for mass distribution. Due to prevalence of multi channels of distribution, there is an information gap. Marketing research helps in collecting information on consumers from structured distribution research and helps in making marketing customer oriented. 4. For effective communication mix:
  13. In an era of micro- rather than mass-marketing, communication plays a vital role. Marketing research uses promotional research to study media mix, advertising effectiveness and integrated communication tools. Research on such aspects will help in promoting effectively a company's product in the market. 5. Improving selling activities: Marketing research is used to analyse and evaluate performances of a company within a market. It also studies effectiveness of a sales force. It helps in identifying sales territories. Such information helps the companies in identifying areas of shortcoming in sales. It also examines alternative methods for distribution of goods. 6. For sales forecasting: The most challenging task for any production manager is to keep optimum levels of inventory. However, production is undertaken in anticipation of demand. Therefore, scientific forecast of sales is required. Marketing research helps in sales forecasting by using market share method, sales force estimate method and jury method. This can also help in fixing sales quotas and marketing plans. 7. To revitalize brands: Marketing research is used to study and find out the existing brand position. It finds out the recall value of brands. It explores the possibilities of brand extension or prospects of changing existing brand names. The main purpose of marketing is to create brand loyalty. Marketing research helps in developing techniques to popularize and retain brand loyalty.
  14. 3. 8. To facilitate smooth introduction of new products: Marketing research helps in testing the new products in one or two markets on a small scale. This helps in finding out consumer response to new product and develop a suitable marketing mix. It reveals the problems of the customers regarding new products. Thus, it controls the risk involved in introducing a new product. 9. Determine export potentials: The development in transport and communication has helped in globalization and digitalization of world trade. This has helped in boosting the growth of international markets. Marketing research helps in conducting market survey for export. lt. collects information on marketing environment prevailing in a country. By collecting data on consumers from different countries, it indicates export potentials. 10. Managerial decision-making: Marketing research plays a vital role in the decision-making processes by supplying relevant, up-to-date and accurate data to the decision- makers. Managers need up-to-date information to access customer needs and wants, market situation, technological change and extent of competition. ASSESSING CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR. Companies study consumer behavior to learn how consumers respond to or use products. Whether testing new products or services, refining existing products or designing new marketing campaigns, collecting data about consumer behavior helps companies better target their efforts. The data gathered may be objective, such as statistics about purchasing habits, or subjective, such as consumer opinions about products or issues. Research firms may use a variety of methods to gather information and construct a complete profile of consumer behavior.
  15. A. Surveys and Questionairres Surveys and questionnaires differ in the amount of information they can solicit. A survey is usually fairly short and general. Questionnaires tend to be longer and ask for more detailed information. A survey may consist of a brief telephone call or a few questions in an online poll. Surveys and questionnaires may collect objective data, such as asking how many times a consumer purchased or used an item, but more often they solicit opinions about issues, products or services. Researchers usually have no way to verify if those being surveyed or questioned are answering honestly. B . Focus Groups and Interviews. Focus groups collect information from a group of people. Focus group participants meet in small groups with a facilitator who is trained to solicit opinions and reactions. Focus group participants might watch a commercial and give their opinions about its effectiveness, or they might share opinions about several similar products. Interviews are similar to focus groups, but the facilitator works with consumers one on one to gauge their response to a product or idea. While focus groups and interviews allow researchers to gather a lot of data, participants may be influenced by dominant personalities in the group or swayed by facilitator bias. C. Ethnographics Ethnographic is a more in-depth look at consumer behavior. Ethnography looks at a consumer's lifestyle and daily activities. A product or service may be only one small part of a person's life. An ethnographer spends extended time with study subjects and assesses their habits and attitudes. This kind of consumer behavior research is expensive and time-consuming and may be intrusive. It requires the researcher to interpret non-verbal and well as verbal communication. D. Panels Panels also operate long term, even for years. Researchers survey panel members regularly, and the resulting data provides a picture of consumer habits over time. Examples of panels include Neilsen ratings and Arbitron. With panels, companies can assess the effect of different advertising campaigns, packaging or other changes.

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