C is the widely used language. It provides a lot of features that are given below.

1.Simple

2.Machine Independent

3.Portable

4.Mid-level programming language

5.structured programming language

6.Rich Library

7.Memory Management

8.Fast Speed

9.Pointers

10.Recursion

11.Mother Language

C programming language was developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at bell laboratories of AT&T (American Telephone & Telegraph), located in U.S.A.

C programming language was developed in 1972 by Dennis Ritchie at bell laboratories of AT&T (American Telephone & Telegraph), located in U.S.A.

Boolean algebra was introduced by George Boole in his first book The Mathematical Analysis of Logic (1847), and set forth more fully in his An Investigation of the Laws of Thought (1854).

Last In First Out

Full form of FIFO is FIRST IN FIRST OUT. An example of FIFO list is Queue. Queue is a linear data structure in which insertion and deletion of elements takes place from two opposite ends rear and front respectively.

Double-ended queue

The full form of ATM is Automated Teller Machine and full form of PIN is Postal Index Number

TCP/IP has 4 layers. They are-

1.Application 2.Transport 3. Internet 4. Network Access layes

In a stack, only limited operations are performed because it is restricted data structure. The elements are deleted from the stack in the reverse order. Following are the applications of stack: 1. Expression Evaluation 2. Expression Conversion     i. Infix to Postfix     ii. Infix to Prefix     iii. Postfix to Infix     iv. Prefix to Infix 3. Backtracking 4. Memory Management

Queue is also an abstract data type or a linear data structure, just like stack data structure, in which the first element is inserted from one end called the REAR(also called tail), and the removal of existing element takes place from the other end called as FRONT(also called head).

This makes queue as FIFO(First in First Out) data structure, which means that element inserted first will be removed first.

Which is exactly how queue system works in real world. If you go to a ticket counter to buy movie tickets, and are first in the queue, then you will be the first one to get the tickets. Right? Same is the case with Queue data structure. Data inserted first, will leave the queue first.

d. 4

Overflow

D. Job Scheduling

C

Queue

Underflow

C.3

D. There is a Sequential entry that is one by one

C.3

AB+CD*E-FG/**

(ABD^+EF-/G+)

If any operator is used on three operands or variable is known as Ternary Operator. It can be represented with ? : . It is also called as conditional operator

• Using ?: reduce the number of line codes and improve the performance of application.
• Syntax

               expression-1 ? expression-2 : expression-3

In the above symbol expression-1 is condition and expression-2 and expression-3 will be either value or variable or statement or any mathematical expression. If condition will be true expression-2 will be execute otherwise expression-3 will be executed.

• Example

a<b ? printf("a is less") : printf("a is greater");

Time complexity of an algorithm signifies the total time required by the program to run till its completion.

The time complexity of algorithms is most commonly expressed using the big O notation. It's an asymptotic notation to represent the time complexity. We will study about it in detail in the next tutorial.

Time Complexity is most commonly estimated by counting the number of elementary steps performed by any algorithm to finish execution. Like in the example above, for the first code the loop will run nnumber of times, so the time complexity will be n atleast and as the value of n will increase the time taken will also increase. While for the second code, time complexity is constant, because it will never be dependent on the value of n, it will always give the result in 1 step.

And since the algorithm's performance may vary with different types of input data, hence for an algorithm we usually use the worst-case Time complexity of an algorithm because that is the maximum time taken for any input size.

Interpreter is a program that executes instructions written in a high-level language. There are two ways to run programs written in a high-level language. The most common is to compile the program; the other method is to pass the program through an interpreter.

Variables are used to store information to be referenced and manipulated in a computer program. They also provide a way of labeling data with a descriptive name, so our programs can be understood more clearly by the reader and ourselves. It is helpful to think of variables as containers that hold information. Their sole purpose is to label and store data in memory. This data can then be used throughout your program.

     15pq+15+9q+25p

=  15pq+9q+25p+15

=   3q(5p+3)+5(5p+3)

=    (5p+3)(3q+5)

C:D = 25000:40000

5:8

next →← prev

What is HTML

HTML is an acronym which stands for Hyper Text Markup Language which is used for creating web pages and web applications. Let's see what is meant by Hypertext Markup Language, and Web page?

Hyper Text: HyperText simply means "Text within Text." A text has a link within it, is a hypertext. Whenever you click on a link which brings you to a new webpage, you have clicked on a hypertext. HyperText is a way to link two or more web pages (HTML documents) with each other.

Markup language: A markup language is a computer language that is used to apply layout and formatting conventions to a text document. Markup language makes text more interactive and dynamic. It can turn text into images, tables, links, etc.

Web Page: A web page is a document which is commonly written in HTML and translated by a web browser. A web page can be identified by entering an URL. A Web page can be of the static or dynamic type. With the help of HTML only, we can create static web pages.

How is your company doing? Being able to answer that question requires you to know how much money you're making, which in turn requires accurate bookkeeping. Keeping accurate financial records is crucial to the success of any business, so it's important to know your options.

While some firms still do their bookkeeping by hand, most firms generally have too many transactions to sustain a manual accounting system. The more complicated the financial activities of your business are, the more likely it is that you'll need a computerized accounting system to ensure effective financial reporting. Computerized accounting systems are software programs that are stored on a company's computer, network server, or remotely accessed via the Internet.

The VI editor is the most popular and classic text editor in the Linux family. Below, are some reasons which make it a widely used editor –

• It is available in almost all Linux Distributions
• It works the same across different platforms and Distributions
• It is user-friendly. Hence, millions of Linux users love it and use it for their editing needs

Nowadays, there are advanced versions of the vi editor available, and the most popular one is VIM which is Vi Improved. Some of the other ones are Elvis, Nvi, Nano, and Vile. It is wise to learn vi because it is feature-rich and offers endless possibilities to edit a file.

A mail merge is a capability of database software, word processors, and some e-mail programs. Mail merge takes a standard form e-mail and populates it with personal information, such as e-mail address, name, address, and phone number of the recipient. The resulting messages will be unique for each person in a database, CSV, or another source of structured data.

Uses of Mail Merge

Mail merge, for many people, conjures thoughts of junk mail. While marketers undeniably use mail merge to generate large amounts of mail quickly and easily, many other uses may surprise you and change the way you create some of your documents.

You can use mail merge to create any type of printed document, as well as electronically distributed documents and faxes. The kinds of documents you can create using a mail merge are virtually limitless. Here are some examples:

• Catalogs
• Inventories
• Invoices
• Labels
• Envelopes
• And, of course, letters

• It allows us to create the framework (forms, tables and so on) for storing information in a database.

• Microsoft Access allows opening the table and scrolling through the records contained within it.

• Microsoft Access forms provide a quick and easy way to modify and insert records into your databases.

• Microsoft Access has capabilities to answer more complex requests or queries.

• Access queries provide the capability to combine data from multiple tables and place specific conditions on the data retrieved.

• Access provides a user-friendly forms interface that allows users to enter information in a graphical form and have that information transparently passed to the database.

Genetically Modified Organisms

Application Program Interface

Code Division Multiple Access

AutoCAD is a commercial computer-aided design (CAD) .

 CNG stands for Compressed Natural Gas.

Liquefied petroleum gas or liquid petroleum gas(LPG or LP gas), also referred to as simply propane or butane, are flammablemixtures of hydrocarbon gases used as fuel in heating appliances, cooking equipment, and vehicles.

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries 

Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) is produced by the pituitary gland and LTH Stands For : Luteotropic Hormone

Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate

Advanced Design System (ADS) is an electronic design automation software for RF, microwave, and high speed digital applications, produced by Agilent EEsof EDA,a unit of Agilent Technologies.

JavaScript provides different data types to hold different types of values. There are two types of data types in JavaScript.

1.Primitive data type

2.Non-primitive (reference) data type

JavaScript is a dynamic type language, means you don't need to specify type of the variable because it is dynamically used by JavaScript engine. You need to use var here to specify the data type. It can hold any type of values such as numbers, strings etc. For example:

var a=40;//holding number   var b="Rahul";//holding string  

• JavaScript primitive data types

There are five types of primitive data types in JavaScript. They are as follows:

Data TypeDescriptionStringrepresents sequence of characters e.g. "hello"Numberrepresents numeric values e.g. 100Booleanrepresents boolean value either false or trueUndefinedrepresents undefined valueNullrepresents null i.e. no value at all

• JavaScript non-primitive data types

The non-primitive data types are as follows:

Data TypeDescriptionObjectrepresents instance through which we can access membersArrayrepresents group of similar valuesRegExprepresents regular expression

We will have great discussion on each data type later.

JavaScript is a client-side programming language which helps web developer to do Web Application Development and make dynamic and interactive web pagesby implementing custom client-side scripts. Developers can also use cross-platform runtime engines like Node.js to write server-side code in JavaScrip

Advantages of JavaScript. Speed. Being client-side, JavaScript is very fast because any code functions can be run immediately instead of having to contact the server and wait for an answer. Simplicity.

Option D is Correct

Option C

Second-generation languages are machine-dependent assembly languages, and third-generation languages (3GLs) are high-level programming languages, such as FORTRAN, COBOL, BASIC, Pascal, C/C++ and Java. Many languages are actually a mix of both third- and fourth-generation languages.

Python is more productive language than Java. Python is an interpreted language with elegant syntax and makes it a very good option for scripting and rapid application development in many areas. ... Python code is much shorter, even though some Java “class shell” is not listed.

The best programming language to work with the .NET Framework and it's APIs is C#. Java is not an alternative for this. And C++ is an older language without automatic memory management. C# is similar to C++ but has automatic memory management and you don't have to work with pointers, which make you more productive.

While Python can be more user-friendly than Java, as it has a more intuitive coding style, both languages do have their unique advantages for developers and end users. However, if you are just beginning your path towards a programming career, you might want to start by learning Python, as it is less complex.

Both PHP and javascript are scripting languages. But php is bound to the server side and javascript is bound to the client side. A user need not do anything if he/she wants to use a PHP site because the server hosting the php application puts up with the computing involved in it.

The JIT compiler is a part of the Java Runtime Environment. ... Theoretically, this can make a Java program as fast as a native application. While Java programs are compiled directly, Python is interpreted which slows down Python programs during runtime.

It isn't correct to compare Java to PHP. Since PHP is a server-side scripting language whereas Java is a general-purpose language. In other words, PHP is only used as a server-side language where Java is both for server-side and desktop programming language. Moreover, Java is compiled and strongly-typed language.

PHP and Java are both very similar when it comes to the benefits provided, but they are both very different. PHP is a server side scripting language, while Java is a client side choice. When you use PHP code, you will execute it in the actual server, while Java will be executed on your client's computer.

The main difference between the two is that JavaScript is a client-side scripting language whereas PHP is a server-side scripting language. However, since the release of Node.js, JavaScript has also been used as a server-side technology allowing you to build scalable network applications.

PHP is used to create HTML, JavaScript and in some cases, CSS code. ... If you need to use a scripting language, such as PHP, once the page has been loaded into the browser, then you must either refresh the page or use Ajax to request more processing at the server side.

Your PHP is executed at the server. Once the page has been fetched,inserting PHP code into it at the client end via JavaScript, will not cause it to be executed. You should store $number , $ey in JavaScript variables and perform the same comparison in JavaScript.

There is a way to run php in client-side javascript (not talking about server-side js here). ... despite some comments, at some cases it's really necessary to accessPHP functions at Javascript (e.g. the AJAX cases). At these cases you can usethe mwsX library to use your PHP functions at Javascript.

Why String is Immutable or Final in Java. Thestring is Immutable in Java because String objects are cached in String pool. ... At the same time,String was made final so that no one can compromise invariant of String class e.g. Immutability, Caching, hashcode calculation etc by extending and overriding behaviors.

String is immutable, if you try to alter their values, another object gets created, whereas StringBuffer andStringBuilder are mutable so they can change their values. Thread-Safety Difference: The difference between StringBuffer and StringBuilder is thatStringBuffer is thread-safe.

In programming languages, loops are used to execute a set of instructions/functions repeatedly when some conditions become true. There are three types of loops in java.

• for loop
• while loop
• do-while loop

Javascript generally supports the true and false values. - A Boolean() function can be used to find out if an expression is true. - The boolean value expression is the fundament for comparison and conditions.

Java provides a number of access modifiers to set access levels for classes, variables, methods, and constructors. The four access levels are −

• Visible to the package, the default. No modifiers are needed.
• Visible to the class only (private).
• Visible to the world (public).
• Visible to the package and all subclasses (protected).

Default Access Modifier - No Keyword

Default access modifier means we do not explicitly declare an access modifier for a class, field, method, etc.

A variable or method declared without any access control modifier is available to any other class in the same package. The fields in an interface are implicitly public static final and the methods in an interface are by default public.

Example

Variables and methods can be declared without any modifiers, as in the following examples −

String version = "1.5.1"; boolean processOrder() { return true; }

Private Access Modifier - Private

Methods, variables, and constructors that are declared private can only be accessed within the declared class itself.

Private access modifier is the most restrictive access level. Class and interfaces cannot be private.

Variables that are declared private can be accessed outside the class, if public getter methods are present in the class.

Using the private modifier is the main way that an object encapsulates itself and hides data from the outside world.

Example

The following class uses private access control −

public class Logger { private String format; public String getFormat() { return this.format; } public void setFormat(String format) { this.format = format; } }

Here, the format variable of the Logger class is private, so there's no way for other classes to retrieve or set its value directly.

So, to make this variable available to the outside world, we defined two public methods: getFormat(), which returns the value of format, and setFormat(String), which sets its value.

Public Access Modifier - Public

A class, method, constructor, interface, etc. declared public can be accessed from any other class. Therefore, fields, methods, blocks declared inside a public class can be accessed from any class belonging to the Java Universe.

However, if the public class we are trying to access is in a different package, then the public class still needs to be imported. Because of class inheritance, all public methods and variables of a class are inherited by its subclasses.

Example

The following function uses public access control −

public static void main(String[] arguments) { // ... }

The main() method of an application has to be public. Otherwise, it could not be called by a Java interpreter (such as java) to run the class.

Protected Access Modifier - Protected

Variables, methods, and constructors, which are declared protected in a superclass can be accessed only by the subclasses in other package or any class within the package of the protected members' class.

The protected access modifier cannot be applied to class and interfaces. Methods, fields can be declared protected, however methods and fields in a interface cannot be declared protected.

Protected access gives the subclass a chance to use the helper method or variable, while preventing a nonrelated class from trying to use it.

Example

The following parent class uses protected access control, to allow its child class override openSpeaker() method −

class AudioPlayer { protected boolean openSpeaker(Speaker sp) { // implementation details } } class StreamingAudioPlayer { boolean openSpeaker(Speaker sp) { // implementation details } }

Here, if we define openSpeaker() method as private, then it would not be accessible from any other class other than AudioPlayer. If we define it as public, then it would become accessible to all the outside world. But our intention is to expose this method to its subclass only, that’s why we have used protected modifier.

Access Control and Inheritance

The following rules for inherited methods are enforced −

• Methods declared public in a superclass also must be public in all subclasses.

• Methods declared protected in a superclass must either be protected or public in subclasses; they cannot be private.

• Methods declared private are not inherited at all, so there is no rule for them.

Firstly java compiled(some would prefer to say "translated") to bytecode, which then eithercompiled, or interpreted depending on mood of JIT.Java is a compiled programming language, but rather than compile straight to executable machine code, it compiles to an intermediate binary form called JVM byte code.

The default behavior of an object’s clone() method automatically yields a shallow copy. So to achieve a deep copy the classes must be edited or adjusted.

Shallow copy:Generally clone method of an object, creates a new instance of the same class and copies all the fields to the new instance and returns it. This is called shallow copy. Object class provides a clone method and provides support for the shallow copy. It returns ‘Object’ as type and you need to explicitly cast back to your original object. Since the Object class has the clone method, you cannot use it in all your classes. The class which you want to be cloned should implement clone method and overwrite it. It should provide its own meaning for copy or to the least it should invoke the super.clone(). Also you have to implement Cloneable marker interface or else you will get CloneNotSupportedException. When you invoke the super.clone() then you are dependent on the Object class’s implementation and what you get is a shallow copy.

Deep copy:When you need a deep copy then you need to implement it yourself. When the copied object contains some other object its references are copied recursively in deep copy. When you implement deep copy be careful as you might fall for cyclic dependencies. If you don’t want to implement deep copy yourselves then you can go for serialization. It does implements deep copy implicitly and gracefully handling cyclic dependencies.

Types of Network Topology

Network Topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various nodes(sender and receiver) through lines of connection.

• BUS Topology

Bus topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is connected to single cable. When it has exactly two endpoints, then it is called Linear Bus topology.

Features of Bus Topology

It transmits data only in one direction. Every device is connected to a single cable

Advantages of Bus Topology

It is cost effective. Cable required is least compared to other network topology. Used in small networks. It is easy to understand. Easy to expand joining two cables together.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

Cables fails then whole network fails. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the network decreases. Cable has a limited length. It is slower than the ring topology.

• RING Topology

It is called ring topology because it forms a ring as each computer is connected to another computer, with the last one connected to the first. Exactly two neighbours for each device.

Features of Ring Topology

A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are used in the network. The transmission is unidirectional, but it can be made bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is called Dual Ring Topology. In Dual Ring Topology, two ring networks are formed, and data flow is in opposite direction in them. Also, if one ring fails, the second ring can act as a backup, to keep the network up. Data is transferred in a sequential manner that is bit by bit. Data transmitted, has to pass through each node of the network, till the destination node.

Advantages of Ring Topology

Transmitting network is not affected by high traffic or by adding more nodes, as only the nodes having tokens can transmit data. Cheap to install and expand

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

Troubleshooting is difficult in ring topology. Adding or deleting the computers disturbs the network activity. Failure of one computer disturbs the whole network.

• STAR Topology

In this type of topology all the computers are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central node and all others nodes are connected to the central node.

Features of Star Topology

Every node has its own dedicated connection to the hub. Hub acts as a repeater for data flow. Can be used with twisted pair, Optical Fibre or coaxial cable.

Advantages of Star Topology

Fast performance with few nodes and low network traffic. Hub can be upgraded easily. Easy to troubleshoot. Easy to setup and modify. Only that node is affected which has failed, rest of the nodes can work smoothly.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

Cost of installation is high. Expensive to use. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes depend on the hub. Performance is based on the hub that is it depends on its capacity

• MESH Topology

It is a point-to-point connection to other nodes or devices. All the network nodes are connected to each other. Mesh has n(n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices.

There are two techniques to transmit data over the Mesh topology, they are :

Routing Flooding

MESH Topology: Routing

In routing, the nodes have a routing logic, as per the network requirements. Like routing logic to direct the data to reach the destination using the shortest distance. Or, routing logic which has information about the broken links, and it avoids those node etc. We can even have routing logic, to re-configure the failed nodes.

MESH Topology: Flooding

In flooding, the same data is transmitted to all the network nodes, hence no routing logic is required. The network is robust, and the its very unlikely to lose the data. But it leads to unwanted load over the network.

Types of Mesh Topology

Partial Mesh Topology : In this topology some of the systems are connected in the same fashion as mesh topology but some devices are only connected to two or three devices. Full Mesh Topology : Each and every nodes or devices are connected to each other.

Features of Mesh Topology

Fully connected. Robust. Not flexible.

Advantages of Mesh Topology

Each connection can carry its own data load. It is robust. Fault is diagnosed easily. Provides security and privacy.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

Installation and configuration is difficult. Cabling cost is more. Bulk wiring is required.

TREE Topology

It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy.

Features of Tree Topology

Ideal if workstations are located in groups. Used in Wide Area Network.

Advantages of Tree Topology

Extension of bus and star topologies. Expansion of nodes is possible and easy. Easily managed and maintained. Error detection is easily done.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

Heavily cabled. Costly. If more nodes are added maintenance is difficult. Central hub fails, network fails.

HYBRID Topology

It is two different types of topologies which is a mixture of two or more topologies. For example if in an office in one department ring topology is used and in another star topology is used, connecting these topologies will result in Hybrid Topology (ring topology and star topology).

Features of Hybrid Topology

It is a combination of two or topologies Inherits the advantages and disadvantages of the topologies included

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

Reliable as Error detecting and trouble shooting is easy. Effective. Scalable as size can be increased easily. Flexible.

Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology

Complex in design. Costly.

HTML is a computer language devised to allow website creation. These websites can then be viewed by anyone else connected to the Internet. It is relatively easy to learn, with the basics being accessible to most people in one sitting; and quite powerful in what it allows you to create. It is constantly undergoing revision and evolution to meet the demands and requirements of the growing Internet audience under the direction of the » W3C, the organisation charged with designing and maintaining the language.

The definition of HTML is HyperText Markup Language.

• HyperText is the method by which you move around on the web — by clicking on special text called hyperlinks which bring you to the next page. The fact that it is hyper just means it is not linear — i.e. you can go to any place on the Internet whenever you want by clicking on links — there is no set order to do things in.
• Markup is what HTML tags do to the text inside them. They mark it as a certain type of text (italicised text, for example).
• HTML is a Language, as it has code-words and syntax like any other language.

Option C

Option A

Text will  appear in Italics

Microsoft Word is a word processing program that was first developed by Microsoft in 1983. Since that time, Microsoft has released an abundance of updated versions, each offering more features and incorporating better technology than the one before it. The most current web-based version of Microsoft Word is Office 365, but the software version of Microsoft Office 2019 includes Word 2019.

Microsoft Word is included in all of the Microsoft Office application suites. The most basic (and least expensive) suites also include Microsoft PowerPoint and Microsoft Excel. Additional suites exist and include other Office programs, such as Microsoft Outlook and Skype for Business.

Microsoft Word is the world’s leading word processing application. It can be used to work with a wide range of documents from simple letters, memos to complex documents like newsletters, forms and now with blogs too with Word 2007.

Computer is an electronic machine that makes performing any task very easy. In computer, the CPU executes each instruction provided to it, in a series of steps, this series of steps is called Machine Cycle, and is repeated for each instruction. One machine cycle involves fetching of instruction, decoding the instruction, transferring the data, executing the instruction.

Computer system has five basic units that help the computer to perform operations, which are given below:

Input Unit Output Unit Storage Unit Arithmetic Logic Unit Control Unit

Input Unit

Input unit connects the external environment with internal computer system. It provides data and instructions to the computer system. Commonly used input devices are keyboard, mouse, magnetic tape etc.

Input unit performs following tasks:

• Accept the data and instructions from the outside environment.
• Convert it into machine language.
• Supply the converted data to computer system.

Output Unit

It connects the internal system of a computer to the external environment. It provides the results of any computation, or instructions to the outside world. Some output devices are printers, monitor etc.

Storage Unit

This unit holds the data and instructions. It also stores the intermediate results before these are sent to the output devices. It also stores the data for later use.

The storage unit of a computer system can be divided into two categories:

• Primary Storage: This memory is used to store the data which is being currently executed. It is used for temporary storage of data. The data is lost, when the computer is switched off. RAM is used as primary storage memory.
• Secondary Storage: The secondary memory is slower and cheaper than primary memory. It is used for permanent storage of data. Commonly used secondary memory devices are hard disk, CD etc.

Arithmetic Logical Unit

All the calculations are performed in ALU of the computer system. The ALU can perform basic operations such as addition, subtraction, division, multiplication etc. Whenever calculations are required, the control unit transfers the data from storage unit to ALU. When the operations are done, the result is transferred back to the storage unit.

Control Unit

It controls all other units of the computer. It controls the flow of data and instructions to and from the storage unit to ALU. Thus it is also known as central nervous system of the computer.

CPU

It is Central Processing Unit of the computer. The control unit and ALU are together known as CPU. CPU is the brain of computer system. It performs following tasks:

• It performs all operations.
• It takes all decisions.
• It controls all the units of computer.

Exposure mode Manual

Focus mode Manual

Shutter speed 1/30sec or longer

Aperture f/16

ISO 100 or lower

Lens 18-24mm

Drive mode Single-shot

White balance Daylight

The 500 Rule refers to camera settings to get a good exposure of the stars and Milky Way that helps you avoid “star trails.”

If you set the shutter speed for any longer than dictated by the 500 rule, then the stars in your image will show up as star trails (rather than dots).

The 500 Rule for Full Frame Camera

The 500 rule for a full frame camera requires you to set your camera to ISO 3200 or 6400, Aperture to f/2.8 (or as wide as possible) and your shutter speed to 500 divided by the focal length of your camera.

For example, if you are shooting with a 50mm lens, your shutter speed would be 10 seconds (500 / 50 = 10).

If you are shooting with a 24mm lens, your shutter speed would be 21 seconds (500 / 24 = 21 approximately).

The 500 Rule for a Crop Sensor Canon Camera

The crop factor of a Canon crop sensor camera is 1.6 so you need to account for that in your equation. Then it becomes this:

500 / focal length / 1.6

For example, with a 50mm lens it is 500 / 50 / 1.6 = 6 seconds (approximately).

The 500 Rule for a Crop Sensor Nikon Camera

The crop factor for a Nikon crop sensor camera is 1.5 so you account for that like this:

500 / focal length / 1.5

For example, with a 50mm lens, it is 500 / 50 / 1.5 = 7 seconds (approximately).

Shutter Speed Settings for the 500 Rule

Here are the settings you would use, according to your camera and lens. Just remember that the 500 rule is not perfect – you are probably going to have to adjust slightly for your particular circumstances such as light pollution, the angle of the stars or even atmospheric haze.

Night Photography Equipment You May Need

• You need a camera that you can shoot in manual mode.  This could be an advanced point-and-shoot camera, any DSLR, or a mirrorless camera.
• You need a tripod.  Night photography simply won't work without a tripod since you'll be using a long shutter speed.  Otherwise, the image will be blurry.
• A cable release.  You don't need a cable release to capture night photography, but as you get more advanced, it can be a nice piece of gear to have.  A cable release plugs into your camera and gives you a button you can press and lock so that the camera can take pictures for longer than 30 seconds (the usual max shutter speed of most cameras).
• A flashlight.  If you think you may ever want to learn how to do light painting, then a flashlight is a must.  Light painting means that you wave a flashlight around at the scene while you're capturing the photo.  Check out my light painting tutorial if you're interested in learning more.

Image stabilisation refers to a number of techniques used to obtain sharp, blur-free images. They can be found in both camera bodies and lenses, and range from simple electronic adjustments to expensive physical systems, each with its advantages.   

A flash is a device used in photography producing a flash of artificial light (typically 1/1000 to 1/200 of a second) at a color temperature of about 5500 K to help illuminate a scene. A major purpose of a flash is to illuminate a dark scene. ... Flash units are commonly built directly into a camera.

Aperture is a hole within a lens, through which light travels into the camera body. It is an easy concept to understand if you just think about how your eyes work. As you move between bright and dark environments, the iris in your eyes either expands or shrinks, controlling the size of your pupil. In photography, the “pupil” of your lens is called your aperture. You can shrink or enlarge the size of the aperture to allow more or less light to reach your camera sensor. 

Shutter speed is the length of time your camera shutter is open, exposing light onto the camera sensor. Essentially, it’s how long your camera spends taking a photo. This has a few important effects in how your images will appear.

When you use a long shutter speed, you end up exposing your sensor for a significant period of time. The first big effect of shutter speed is motion blur. If your shutter speed is long, moving subjects in your photo will appear blurred along the direction of motion. This effect is used quite often in advertisements of cars and motorbikes, where a sense of speed and motion is communicated to the viewer by intentionally blurring the moving wheels.

Films with lower ISO numbers are known as slow, or less sensitive to light; films with higher ISO numbers are faster, or more light-sensitive. When using a film camera, it's pretty typical to shoot with ISO 100 or 200 film in normal daylight, and use ISO 400 film for lower-light photography

• Put the exposure and focus on manual setting.
• Start with a 30 second exposure.
• Use the largest aperture you have. F2.8 is nice. F2 is better. Whatever you’re largest aperture is, use it.
• Crank your ISO up as high as it will go. Don’t worry about the digital noise you might get at a high ISO setting. (We’re not painting the Sistine Chapel here; we’re trying to impress kids and dinner guests.)

Choose the place where your camera is going to go. You can do this with the lights on. A tripod is best, but as I said, a table or even the floor will work.

Megapixels (MP), which translates to “one million pixels,” dictate how much detail your camera’s sensor can capture.  The higher the megapixel number, the more potential detail can be captured within an image.

Nikon Compatible Lenses for Night Photography

Nikkor 14-24mm f/2.8G – The best night & landscape photography lens currently made.

Nikkor 17-35mm f/2.8D ED-IF Autofocus Lens – Another great wide angle lens.

Nikkor 16mm f/2.8 Fisheye

Rokinon 14mm f/2.8 – Fantastic wide angle lens at a great price.

Rokinon 35mm f/1.4

Set your camera on a tripod well away from the spin, and use Manual mode with an aperture of f/8, an ISO of 100 and a shutter speed of around 30 seconds.

1. Crank up the ISO. The higher the ISO number, the more sensitive the camera’s sensor is to the light that is reaching it. The additional noise that is generated by using a high ISO can be filtered out somewhat in post-processing. Sometimes the extra grain adds a little something special to the shot. Shooting in RAW format allows for the most flexibility in post-processing.

2. Use a larger aperture. The larger the aperture, the more light is entering the lens. Shooting at f/5.6 lets in more light than shooting at f/18 (remember, the lower the number, the larger the aperture).

3. Slow down the shutter speed. More light is captured the longer the shutter remains open. Keep in mind that a good rule of thumb for clear hand-held shots is no slower than 1/60 of a second. Use a tripod if you’re shooting at anything slower than that, though I have had success at slower hand-held shots using lenses with image stabilization.

4. If you do have to use a flash, try to avoid the on-camera pop-up. It tends to flatten the appearance of the image because the light is hitting the subject directly. Invest in an off-camera flash, angle light so that it is not directly in front of the subject, and use reflective surfaces and diffusers to soften the light. Strategically placed constant light (such as tungsten lamps using soft white bulbs) work excellently for providing additional ambient light without sacrificing the atmosphere of the setting.

5. Use your camera’s exposure compensation capabilities. The scale on many of today’s DSLR’s allow from -3 to +3 stops in 1/3 stop increments (my 7D is +/-5). Dial the exposure compensation to the positive side to purposefully overexpose the photograph.

Shoot at lower ISO settings

If your camera is three years old or newer, the ISO functionality will be great. You shouldn’t see too much noise creeping into your images, even up to ISO 1000. However, there might still be some noise at the higher ISO numbers, so be aware of your exposure. Shooting at a lower ISO means you will have less noise in your image. Higher ISO settings tell your camera’s sensor to group pixels together to capture more light. This grouping effect can make your image look gritty and noisy.

So, how do you avoid shooting at a high ISO? If possible, open your aperture to its widest setting i.e. f/2.8. If you are shooting in low light, use a tripod if possible, or you could use a flash. If none of these options give you the correct exposure, then you will need to push the ISO up higher. Also, do some test shots to find out at what level the ISO settings on your camera start to degrade image quality. For many years I shot on a Nikon D80 and I knew that anything above ISO 500 was really difficult to use afterwards. This was because the noise became difficult to remove, even in third party software, and if it was removed, the image looked like a watercolour painting as a result of over processing of the noise. So I got to know the limits of my camera and worked within those constraints.

Shoot in RAW format

I know you may feel daunted by shooting in RAW, but you don’t need to be. RAW is a great way to get the best out of your images, so be sure to use it. You don’t have to shoot RAW all the time, but when you notice that the light is becoming a little too dark, switch over to RAW. The reason is that JPEG images already have compression applied to them. This means that there is already some noise, and what is known as JPEG artefacts, in the image. If you are using a high ISO with JPEG files, the noise can become even worse. Also, in post-production, you have much more flexibility removing noise, and increasing exposure, with a RAW file than a JPEG.

Adobe Photoshop Camera Raw has some powerful noise reduction tools

Check your exposure

When digital cameras first hit the market, they were really bad at rendering highlights correctly. Many photographers (myself included) would slightly underexpose the images in order to retain detail in the highlights. This meant that the shadow areas were really dark and when you tried to pull them up in Photoshop, the noise would become evident.  This has been largely sorted out now and the new generation of digital sensors does a great job of handling highlights and shadows. As a result, you can expose correctly without fear of having noise in the shadows, or problems in the highlights. In fact, you can now overexpose slightly so that the shadows are a little brighter than normal and then you can pull the highlights down in Photoshop. I have been doing this for a while now and it is amazing how much detail the new sensors can capture in the highlights. Be careful not to overexpose too much, watch that you don’t clip the highlights as the details may then be lost for good.

Be careful when doing long exposures

Long exposures make some of the most dramatic images, but if the exposure is too long, the sensor of the camera can begin to heat up and the pixels will render incorrect colours and exposure. You can still do long exposures, but again, be aware of how you camera handles the long exposure time. Does the image look too grainy? Test it out and experiment to see where your camera begins to struggle. Then make sure that you don’t shoot a long exposure for longer than whatever works on your camera. The key point here is to know the limits of your gear and shoot within those limits. This will ensure great images and easy image editing.

Long exposure images can accentuate noise in a scene

Use in-camera noise reduction

In most cameras there will be a function called High ISO Noise Reduction or Long Exposure Noise Reduction. It’s a good idea to turn this on if you are shooting at a high ISO or doing long exposures. The reason is that after the image has been shot, the camera will analyse the image and look for any pixels that are incorrectly rendered. It will then fix the pixels that are not properly rendered. This takes some time, usually as long as the exposure time. So if you shot an image that was 30 seconds long, the camera will do an analysis and correction that will take up to 30 seconds. This may become impractical if you are doing 10 minute exposures, but it is worth doing on shorter exposures. If you have the time, do it on the very long exposures too, as it can improve the image quality.

Adobe Photoshop is software that is extensively used for raster image editing, graphic design and digital art. It makes use of layering to allow for depth and flexibility in the design and editing process, as well as provide powerful editing tools, that when combined, are capable of just about anything.

Option B

None of these

Answer A 0.1 Sec

Focal length= 1/0.2m =5 m

So, None of the above options

Option C

x^2=16    So, x=+4 or x=-4

2x=6      So, x=3

So,  Answer is Option A

Answer B

Answer A

Answer D

Answer C

Answer A

Square of term that is 1*1=1, 2*2=4, 3*3=27 

So, wrong number is 29

Answer D

Answer B

Answer A

Option D

Answer C

option B

Answer B

Option B

Option B

Option A

Option A

Option D

Option A

Option B

Option C

Option D

Option B

Option C

Answer C

Option C

Option C

10/14=5/7 

Option D

Option D

Option B

Option 4

Option D

Option A

Option B

Option A

Option A

Option D

Option C

Question is wrong

Towards NORTH direction

Next number 20

1st =2

2nd=2+(1*2*3)=8

3rd=8+(4*5*6)=128

........ last =632+(10*11*12)=1932

Option D

Option D

Option B

Option B

Option B

Option B

1990

Option A

Option A

Option B

Option C

Option B    too

Option A

Option C

Option C

Option A

Option A

Option D

Option B 

Option D

Option A

Option A

Option B

Option A

Option A

Option D

Option D

Option D

Option D

Option C

Option A

Option A

Option A

Option B

Option D

Option C

Option B

Option B

Option C

Option E

Option B

Option A

Option A

9*11= 9^2+11^2-9*11=103

X-12=2X*20/100

X-12=2X/5

5X-60=2X

X=20

Option C Medicine

Option D Public

Option C

Option C

Option D

Option D

Option E

Height = 200m. Angle of elevation= 30 degrees from the foot of tower. so, base= tan 30= P/B= 200/B or, 1/sq rt (3)= 200/B or, B= 200* sqrt(3)= 346.4m.

 45 degree with the top of the lighthouse be 30 deg ree be x So 100/x = tan30 = 1/1.732. This gives x = 100 x 1.732 = 173 m Let the other ship be at a distance of y m So tan 45 = 1 = 100/y This gives y = 100 m S0 the total distance between the two ships is 173 + 100 = 273 m So the correct option is C

For 1 job completed in 10*5/8=16 days

So, We need (16-10)=6 days 

Correct Option B

Option C

(120-150)/(5/3) =30 men

Distance=80.5*6.6/0.6=885.5 km 

Option A

(6.6/0.6)*80.5=885.5 km

Option A

​Option A

​Option D

remaining meals =13500-1500=12000

No of Days =12000/800=15 days

3 pumps work for=2*8=16 hrs

4 pumps works for 16*3/4=12 hrs

​Option B

​Option D

​Option D

​Option A

Option B

80.5÷0.6×6.6=885km

So, Option A

Let there be x persons.

x men do work in 100 days (x-10) do work in 90 days. ATP, (x-10)/x = 100/110 or, 10 x= 1100 x= 110 men.

Option D

Option A

Option C     

Option C

Option D

24.8 m. Angle = 60º and distance between wall and ladder= 12.4 m. Length of ladder= 2 x distance between wall and ladder = (2 x 12.4) m = 24.8 m.

Option B

let the total marks be X. 43% of X = 900 -40 =360 X=2000

(25-9)*5/4= 20 yrs

Option B

 common factor of 1st ratio = 729/9 = 81 the 2nd ratio increases by 1 on total, so water to be added is = 81litres.

Option B

Option B

Option D

Option D

Option B

C++

Option C

Option D

Option B

Option A

Option B

Option A

Option D

Option D

Option D

Option B

Option B

Option B

Option A

Option D 4

Option D

​Option B

​Option B

​Option B

​Option D

​Option A

​Option B

​Option D

​Option B

​Option B

​Option C

​Option A

​Option B

​Option A

​Option A

​Option A

​Option D

​Option A

​Option D

​Option C

​Option E

​Option D

​Option B

​Option E

​Option C

​Option A

​Option C

​Option A

​Option C

​Option B

​Option C

​Option B

​Option A

​Option D

​Option C

​Option E

​Option A

​Option A

​Option B

​Option C

​Option D

​Option C

5

35

35

35

88

39

46

150

total value= 20*40+25*35+30*30+15*40+35*35       no. of observations= 20+25+30+15+35

answer= 35.2

SQT

Saturday

Option B

​Option B

​Option B

​Option B

​Option D

​Option D

​Option B

​Option B

​Option A

​Option C

​Option C

​Option D

​Option C

​Option D

​Option C

​Option C

​Option C

​Option B

​Option C

​Option E

​Option A

​Option D

​Option B

​Option C

​Option B

​Option D

​Option B

​Option E

​Option B

​Option B

​Option B

150

Option B

Option D

Option B

Option C

Option B

Option E

Option C

Option C

Option B

Option E

Option B

Option B

Option B

Option A

Option A

Option D

Option B

Option C

Option A

Option A

Option C

Option B

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Option A

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​Option D

​Option B

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​Option D

​Option C

​Option C

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​Option E

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​Option B

​Option C

​Option E

​Option D

​Option C

​Option C

​Option C

​Option B

​Option A

​Option E

​Option A

​Option C

​Option A

​Option A

​Option E

​Option D

​Option C

​Option B

​Option B

​Option A

​Option C

​Option A

​Option C

​Option A

​Option C

​Option D

​Option B

​Option C

​Option C

​Option E

​Option D

​Option D

​Option D

​Option B

​Option B

​Option C

​Option C

​Option C

​Option E

​Option C

​Option D

(A+B+C)/3 = 9/40

(A+B+C) = 27/40

C= 27/40-(A+B)

C= 0.675-0.2-0.125 = 0.35

Option C

Option B

Option A

Correct Answer is C      SH.  

A  BCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXY  Z

ABCDEF G HIJKLMNOPQRS T UVWXYZ

Difference From Start and last must be same

S = 2 E = 1 A = 4 R = 6 C = 7 H = 3

ANS - 214673 (c)

Answer 20

Wrong number is 29. because 

1^1=1

2^2=4

3^3=27

4^4=256

R ->Q

O->N

B->A

U->T

S->R

T->S

Here we write previous letter.

So 

Z->Y

X->W

C->B

M->L

P->O

 So, Answer will be YWBLO

Number of proper subset =2^3=6

Those are:

{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{2,3},{1,3} 

Capital ratio= Profit ration

Capital of C : Capital of D=25000:40000=25:40=5:8

So Answer will be 5:8

The Number is  a Prime Number. 

We know that prime numbers has only two factors , those are 1 and itself.

LCM of a prime Number= Product of factors=1X itself

Here Number=493

So, LCM=1X493=493

Let , the number is X

100/50=40/X

=> 2/1=40/X

=> X=20

Correct answer Public

Numbers are prime. That's why they have no common factors except 1 and itself.

So LCM of two numbers = 1X493=493

CNG means COMPRESSED NATURAL GAS

Insufficient data

The total salt content of blood plasma is about 0.85-0.9%  approximately.

Folic Acid

Answer: D 

Answer: C that is 4

Answr: C 5119

22

Answer: D

Answer: A

Option E

Option B

Option: A

Answer: B

100/5

LUP

Answer : 22L

325-259=66

259-202=57

202-160=33

127-105=22

58-56= 2 => 2*1

62-58=4 =>2*2

70-62=8 =>2*3

84-70=14 => 2*4

84 will be 86

Answer: D

Sericulture, or silk farming, is the cultivation of silkworms to produce silk.

Amoeba

One newton is defined as the force that will accelerate a mass of one kilogram at the rate of one meter per second per second, it equals about 0.22 pounds or 0.10 kilograms of force, 7.23 poundals, or 105 dynes.