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The two features of resources that give rise to an economic problem are (i) Resources are scarce (ii) They have alternative uses.

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Cash reserve Ratio is the amount of funds that the banks have to keep with the RBI. If the central bank decides to increase the CRR, the available amount with the banks comes down. The RBI uses the CRR to drain out excessive money from the system.

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Branding implies giving a unique name, sign, symbol or term for the identification of a product. Branding is one of the most important decisions for a marketer. Through branding the firms differentiate their products from that of other similar products. If instead of branding the firms opt for a generic name for their product, they would not be able to distinguish their product from that of competitors. This is because a generic name would represent the whole class of the product. For example, all shampoos are used for cleansing hair. However, one shampoo differs from that of others based on their brand name, symbol or sign used by different shampoo manufacturing firms. Branding not only helps in product differentiation, rather also helps in marketing of goods and services. The following points highlight the importance of branding in marketing of goods and services. 1. Helps in Advertisement: Branding helps a firm to advertise their product. Unless branding is not done a product cannot be advertised. Advertisement for a generic product can only create awareness about the category of product as a whole. It cannot attract customers towards a specific product. On the other hand, advertisement for a branded product helps in highlighting the specific qualities and features of the product. 2. Enables Differential Pricing: Good branding helps in creating a loyalty of the consumers towards the product. The firms can benefit from this loyalty and charge a different price for their product from that of their competitors. For example, if consumers become habitual of using a particular product they would not mind paying a slightly higher price for it. 3. Facilitates Introduction of New Products: Good branding helps in establishing a base for the introduction of a new product. If a new product is launched under an established and reputed brand then, it gets an initial boost and benefits from the brand name. Nowadays, many companies such as Samsung, Cadbury, etc. have multiple products under a single brand name.

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The causes of soil pollution are as follows:-

• Industrial Activity: Industrial activity has been the biggest contributor to the problem in the last century, especially since the amount of mining and manufacturing has increased. Most industries are dependent on extracting minerals from the Earth. Whether it is iron ore or coal, the by products are contaminated and they are not disposed off in a manner that can be considered safe.
• Agricultural Activities:  Chemical utilization has gone up tremendously since technology provided us with modern pesticides and fertilizers. They are full of chemicals that are not produced in nature and cannot be broken down by it. As a result, they seep into the ground after they mix with water and slowly reduce the fertility of the soil. Other chemicals damage the composition of the soil and make it easier to erode by water and air. Plants absorb many of these pesticides and when they decompose, they cause soil pollution since they become a part of the land.
• Waste Disposal:  While industrial waste is sure to cause contamination, there is another way in which we are adding to the pollution. Every human produces a certain amount of personal waste products by way or urine and feces.While much of it moves into the sewer the system, there is also a large amount that is dumped directly into landfills in the form of diapers. Even the sewer system ends at the landfill, where the biological waste pollutes the soil and water. This is because our bodies are full of toxins and chemicals which are now seeping into the land and causing pollution of soil.
• Accidental Oil Spills: Oil leaks can happen during storage and transport of chemicals. This can be seen at most of the fuel stations. The chemicals present in the fuel deteriorates the quality of soil and make them unsuitable for cultivation. These chemicals  can enter into the groundwater through soil and make the water undrinkable.
• Acid Rain: Acid rain is caused when pollutants present in the air mixes up with the rain and fall back on the ground. The polluted water could dissolve away some of the important nutrients found in soil and change the structure of the soil.

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Following are the precautions that need tp be observes while calculating national income by income method:-

(i) Only factor incomes which are earned by rendering productive services are included. All types of transfer income like old-age pension, unemployment allowance, etc. are excluded.

(ii) Sale and purchase of second-hand goods are excluded since they are not part of production of current year but commission paid on sale of second-hand goods is included as it is reward for rendering productive services. Likewise, sale proceeds of shares and bonds are not included.

(iii) Imputed rent of owner occupied dwellings and value of production for self-consumption is included but value of self-consumed services like those of housewife is not Included.

(iv)Income from illegal activities like smuggling, black-marketing, etc. as well as windfall gains (e.g., from lotteries) are excluded.

(v) Direct taxes such as income tax which are paid by the employees from their salaries and corporate tax, which is paid by the joint stock company from its profit, are included. But wealth tax and gift tax are excluded since they are deemed to be paid from past savings and wealth. Similarly, indirect taxes like sales tax, excise duties, which tend to increase market prices, are not included.

 

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• The railway requires a large investment of capital. The cost of construction, maintenance and overhead expenses are very high as compared to other modes of transport. Moreover, the investments are specific and immobile. In case the traffic is not sufficient, the investments may mean wastage of huge resources.
•  Another disadvantages of railway transport is its inflexibility. It routes and timings cannot be adjusted to individual requirements.
• Rail transport cannot provide door to door service as it is tied to a particular track. Intermediate loading or unloading involves greater cost, more wear and tear and wastage of time. The time cost of terminal operations are a great disadvantage of rail transport.
•  As railways require huge capital outlay, they may give rise to monopolies and work against public interest at large.Even if controlled and managed by the government, lack of competition may breed in inefficiency and high costs. 
• Railway transport is unsuitable and uneconomical for short distances and small traffic of goods.
• It involves much time and labour in booking and taking delivery of goods through railways as compared to motor transport.
• Because of huge capital requirements and traffic,railways cannot be operated economically in rural areas. Thus, large rural areas have no railway even today. This causes much inconvenience to the people living in rural areas.