COMMUNICATION

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ROLE OF COMMUNICATION:Paying attention to the needs of others means that we recognize and accept diversity. When we talk about diversity, we mean cultural differences not only within the American and Canadian work force but also in the worldwide marketplace

Surbhi G / Delhi

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BY SURBHI GABA COMMUNICATION IN WORK TEAMS A team is a group of individuals who depend on one another to accomplish a common objective. Teams are often superior to individuals because they can accomplish more work, are more creative, have more information available to them, and offer more interpersonal communication dynamics. There is a synergy at work in which the group's total output exceeds the sum of each individual's contribution. On the other hand, teams can waste time, accomplish little work, and create an environment in which interpersonal conflict can rage. As anyone who has ever worked in a group can attest, there is also the danger of social loafing, the psychological term for avoiding individual responsibility in a group setting. Two to seven members seems to be the most appropriate size range for most effective work teams. Small-team research indicates that five is an ideal size for many teams. Smaller teams often do not have enough diversity of skills and interests to function effectively as a team, whereas larger teams may lack healthy team interaction because just a few people may dominate the discussions. THE VARIABLES OF GROUP COMMUNICATION Three factors-conflict, conformity, and consensus-greatly affect the efficiency with which a team operates and the amount of enjoyment members derive from it. Conflict Conflict is a greatly misunderstood facet of group communication. Many group leaders work hard to avoid conflict because they think it detracts from a group's goals. Their attitude is that a group experiencing conflict is not running smoothly and is destined to fail. In fact, conflict is what group meetings are all about. One purpose of collaborating on a project is to ensure that various viewpoint are heard so that agreement as to the most appropriate course of action can emerge. Groups can use conflict productively to generate and test ideas before they are implemented. Rather than indicating that a meeting is disorderly, the presence of conflict indicates that members are actively discuss the issues. If a group does not exhibit conflict by debating ideas or questioning others, there is very little reason for it to exist. The members may as well be working individually. Conflict, them, is the essence of group interaction. Competent communicators use conflict as means to determine what is and what is not an acceptable idea or solution. Note, however, that the conflict we are talking about involves debate about issues, not about personalities. Interpersonal conflict can, indeed, have serious negative consequences for work teams. Conformity Conformity is agreement with regard to ideas, rules, or principles. Members may be encouraged to disagree about the definition of a problem or possible solutions, but certain fundamental issues-such as how the group should operate-should be agreed to by everyone. Although group conformity and group cohesiveness are necessary for successful small-group communicating, too much cohesiveness can result in what has been termed groupthink, the barrier to communicant hat results from an overemphasis on unity, which stifles opposing on unity, which stifles opposing ideas and the free flow of information. The pressure to conform can become so great that negative information and contrary opinions are never even brought out into the open and discussed. Thus, the group loses the advantage of hearing and considering various perspectives. In effective work-team communication, conflicts, different opinions, and questions are considered an inevitable and essential part of the collaborative process. Consensus Consensus means reaching a decision that best reflects the thinking of all team members. It is finding a solution that is acceptable enough that all members can support it (perhaps, though, with reservations) and that no member actively oppose it. Consensus is not necessarily a unanimous vote, or even a majority vote, because in a majority vote only the majority are happy with the end result; people in the minority may have to accept something they don't like at all. Not every decision, of course, needs to have the support of every members; to push for consensus on every mater would require a tremendous investment of time and energy. The group should decide ahead of time when to push for consensus-for example, when reaching decisions that have a major effect on the direction of the project or the conduct f the team. INITIAL GROUP GOALS It is difficult to work effectively as a team if the team members do not know one another well and are not aware of each member's strengths and weaknesses, styles of working, experiences, attitudes, and the like. Thus, the first task of most new teams is to get to know one another. For small teams to function effectively, not only the task dimension but also the social dimension must be considered. Some amount of "small talk" about family, friends current happenings, and the like before and after the meetings is natural and helps to establish a supportive and open environment. You want to be able to complement each other without embarrassment and to disagree without fear. 1
Too often, decisions just "happen" in a team; members may go along with what they think everyone else wants. Teams should therefore discuss how they will make decisions and should develop operating rules. They should talk about what would be legitimate reasons for missing a meeting, establish a procedure for informing other of an absence beforehand and of keeping the absent member informed of what was accomplished at the meeting, and decide what being "on time" means. In short, they should develop "norms" for the team. GIVING CONSTRUCTIVE FEEDBACK The single most important skill to have in working through any problem is the ability to give constructive feedback. There are proven methods for giving and receiving criticism that work equally well for giving and receiving praise. Acknowledge the need for feedback Feedback is vital; it is the only way to find out what needs to improved and should be an overall part of the teams culture. Thus, your team must agree that giving and receiving feedback is an acceptable part of how you will improve the way you work together. This way, no one will be surprised when he or she receives feedback. Give Both Positive And Negative Feedback Many people take good work for granted and give feedback only when there are problems. Unfortunately, this habit is counterproductive. People are fare more likely to apply attention to your complaints if they have also received your compliments. Learn How To Give Feedback Use these guidelines for compliments as well as complaints: 1. 2. 3. Be Descriptive. Relate objectively what you saw or what you heard. Give specific examples: the more recent, the better. Avoid using labels. Words like undependable, unprofessional, irresponsible, and lazy are labels that we attach to behaviors. Instead, describe the behaviors and drop the labels. Don't exaggerate, Be exact. To say, "Your 're always late for meetings" meetings." "I" statements crate an adult/peer relationship. say, "I feel annoyed when you are late for CONFLICT RESOLUTION Most conflicts in groups can be anticipated or prevented if a group spends time developing itself into a team, getting to know one another, establishing ground rules, discussing norms for group behavior, and the like. However, no matter how much planning is done or how conscientiously team members work, conflicts occasionally show up. One of the worst tactics to take is to accept problems blindly. Problems rarely disappear on their own. However, you should neither overreact nor under react to group problems. Some behaviors are only fleeting disruptions and can be ignored. Others are chronic and disruptive and must be resolved. Think of each problem as a group problem. Groups should avoid the temptation to defuse conflicts by making a scapegoat of one member—for example, "We'd be finished with this report now if Sam had done his part; you never can depend on him." Rarely is one person solely responsible for the success or failure of a group effort. Examine each problem in light of what the group does to encourage or allow the behavior and what the group can do differently to encourage more constructive behavior. Because every member's role is a function of both his or her own personality and the group's personality, the group should consider how to help every person contribute more to the collaborative efforts. Finally, be realistic. Don't assume responsibility for the happiness of others. You are responsible for behaving ethically and for treating other group members with respect, but the purpose of the group is not to develop lifelong friendships or to solve other people's time-management or personal problems. Competent communicators welcome all contributions from group members, regardless of whether the members agree or disagree with their own views, They evaluate each contribution objectively and respond in a nonthreatening manner, with comments that are factual, constructive, and goal-oriented. If the atmosphere becomes tense, they make a light comment, laugh, compliment, recall previous incidents, or take other helpful actions to restore harmony and move the group forward. If interpersonal conflict appears to be developing into a more or less permanent part of the group interactions, the group should put the topic of conflict on its agenda and then devote sufficient meeting time to discussing and working through the conflict. TEAM WRITING The increasing complexity of the workplace makes it difficult for any one person to have either the time or the expertise to be able to identify and solve many of the problems that arise and prepare written responses. This Situation especially applies to long or 2
complex documents. The differing talents, skills, and perspectives of several individuals are often needed in a joint effort to analyze a given situation and generate proposals or recommendations. Thus, team writing is becoming quite prevalent in organizations. (In fact, collaborative communication has always been much more common in organizations than many people realized.) In addition to the general team-building guidelines discussed in the previous section, writing teams should follow these strategies. Assign Tasks And Develop A Schedule Start by determining the goals of the project and identifying the reader. Determine the components of the project, the research needed, and the date when each aspect needs to be completed. Then divide the tasks equitably, based on each member's needs, interests, expertise, and commitment to the project. Meet Regularly Schedule regular meetings throughout the project to pool ideas, keep track of new developments, assess progress, avoid overlap and omissions, and, if necessary, renegotiate the workload and redefine soon as the initial data-gathering phase is complete, confer as a group to develop an outline for the finished project. This outline should show the sequence of major and subordinate topics in the document. Beware of a "data- dump; ' in which every bit of information gathered is dumped into the final document. Not all of the information that you collect may need to be included in the report Draft the Document The goal at this stage is not to prepare a finished product but to draft all of the content. You have two options: Assign parts to different members. Having each member write a different part of the document provides an equitable distribution of the work and may produce a draft more quickly. You must ensure, however, that each member is writing in his or her area of expertise and that all have agreed on such style issues as the degree of formality, direct versus indirect organization, and use of preview and summary. Assign one person to draft the entire document. Assigning one member (presumably the most talented writer) to draft the entire document helps guarantee a more consistent writing style and lessens the risk of serious omissions or duplication. You must, however, provide sufficient guidance to the writer and allow ample time for one person to complete the entire writing task. One common pitfall in team writing is the failure to achieve a single "voice" in the project. Regardless of who prepares each individual part of the report, the final report must look and sound as though it were prepared by one writer. Think of the report as a single document, rather than as a collection of parts. Organize and present the data so that the report comes across as coherent and unified. Provide Helpful Feedback on Team Writing Commenting on the writing of peers can be helpful both to you and to the colleague whose writing you're reviewing. As you respond to the writing of others, you practice techniques that will help you react more effectively to your own writing. In addition, realizing that you are not alone with your writing problems and concerns is sometimes comforting. As a writer, you benefit from the viewpoints of multiple audiences and from learning what does or doesn't work in your writing. Lastly, in a team environment, peer comments create more active involvement and can help foster a sense of community within the team. Revise the Draft Be sure to allow enough time for editing the draft. This task is best accomplished by providing each member with a copy of the draft beforehand (to allow time for reading and annotating) and then meeting as a group to review each section for errors in content, gaps or repetition, and effective writing style. Alternatively, you may decide to use groupware software to revise your document electronically. Decide who will be responsible for making the changes to each section, how the document will be formatted, and who will be responsible for proofreading the final document, Typically, one person (preferably not the typist) will be assigned to review the final draft for consistency and correctness in content, style, and format. THE ETHICAL DIMENSION OF WORK-TEAM COMMUNICATION Accepting membership on a team implies acceptance of certain standards of ethical behavior. One of the most basic of these standards is to put the good of the team ahead of personal gain. Just as the successful ball player declares, "I don't care if I score as long as my team wins;' so also should the successful team player in the organization adopt the attitude "l don't care who gets the credit as long as we achieve our goal' Team members should set aside private agendas in their team actions and avoid advocating positions that might benefit them personally but that would not be best for the team. Team members also have an ethical responsibility to respect the integrity and emotional needs of one another. Everyone's ideas should be treated with respect, and no action should be taken that results in a loss of self-esteem for a member. Finally, each members an ethical responsibility to promote the team's welfare— by contributing his or her best efforts to the team's mission and by refraining from destructive gossip, domination of meetings, and other counterproductive actions. 3
NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION Not all the communication that occurs on work teams, or on the job in general, is spoken, heard, written, or read—that is, verbal. According to management expert Peter Drucker, "The most important thing in communication is to hear what isn't being said."4A nonverbal message is any message that is not written or spoken. The nonverbal message may accompany a verbal message (smiling as you greet a colleague), or it may occur alone (selecting the back seat when entering the conference room for a staff meeting). Nonverbal messages are typically more spontaneous than verbal messages, but that does not mean that they are any less important. One study has shown that only 7% of the meaning communicated by most messages comes from the verbal portion, with the remaining 93% being conveyed nonverbally. BODY MOVEMENT By far, the most expressive part of your body is your face—especially your eyes. Research shows that receivers tend to be quite consistent in their reading of facial expressions. In fact, many of these expressions have the same meaning across different cultures.6 Eye contact and eye movements tell you a lot about a person, although—as we shall see later—maintaining eye contact with the person to whom you're speaking is not perceived as important (or even polite) in some cultures. Gestures are hand and upper-body movements that add important information to face-to-face interactions. As the game of charades proves, you can communicate quite a bit without using oral or written signals. More typically, gestures are used to help illustrate and reinforce your verbal message. Body stance (posture, placement of arms and legs, distribution of weight, and the like) is another form of nonverbal communication. For example, leaning slightly toward the person with whom you're communicating would probably be taken as a sign of interest and involvement in the interaction. On the other hand, leaning back with arms folded across the chest might be taken (and intended) as a sign of boredom or defiance. PHYSICAL APPEARANCE Our culture places great value on physical appearance. Television, newspapers, and magazines are filled with advertisements for personal-care products, and the ads typically feature attractive users of these products. Attractive people tend to be seen as more intelligent, more likable, and more persuasive than unattractive people; in addition, they earn more money. 7 Your appearance is particularly important for making a good first impression. Although you may not be able to change some of your physical features, understanding the importance of good grooming and physical appearance can help you to emphasize your strong points. Also, your clothing, jewelry, office and home furnishings, and automobile provide information about your values, taste, heritage, conformity, status, age, sexuality, and group identification. VOICE QUALITIES No one speaks in a monotone. To illustrate read the following sentence aloud, each time emphasizing the italicized word. Note how the meaning changes with each reading. You were late. (Answers the question "Who was late?" ) You were late. (Responds to the other person's denial of being late.) I You were late. (Emphasizes how late the person was.) Voice qualities such as volume, speed, pitch, tone, and accent carry both intentional and unintentional messages. For example, when you are nervous, you tend to speak faster and at a higher pitch than normal People who constantly speak too softly risk being interrupted or ignored, whereas people who constantly speak too loudly are often seen as being pushy or insecure. A significant number of voice qualities are universal across all human cultures. For example, around the world, adults use higher- pitched voices to speak to children, in greetings, and during courtship. Also, in almost every language, speakers use a rising intonation to ask a question. TIME How do you feel when you're late for an appointment? When others are late? The meaning given to time varies greatly by culture, with Americans and Canadians being much more time conscious than members of South American or Middle Eastern cultures. Time is related not only to culture but also to one's status within the organization. You would be much less likely to keep a superior waiting for an appointment than you would a subordinate. Time is also situation-specific. Although you normally might not worry about being five minutes late for a staff meeting, you would probably arrive early if you were the first presenter. TOUCH 4
Touch is the first sense we develop, acquired even before birth. Some touches, such as those made by a physician during an examination, are purely physical; others, such as a handshake, are a friendly sign of willingness to communicate; and still others indicate intimacy. Although touching is a very important form of business communication, it is one that most people do not know how to use appropriately and effectively. The person who never touches anyone in a business setting may be seen as cold and standoffish, whereas the person who touches too frequently may cause the receiver to feel apprehensive and uncomfortable. SPACE AND TERRITORY When you are on a crowded elevator, you probably look at the floor indicator, at advertisements, at your feet, or just straight ahead. Most people in our culture are uncomfortable in such close proximity to strangers. Psychologists have identified four zones within which people in our culture interact. 1. 2. 3. 4. Intimate Zone: From physical contact to about 18 inches is where all your body movements occur; this is the area in which you move throughout the day. It is an area normally reserved for close, intimate -interactions. Business associates typically enter this space infrequently and only briefly—perhaps to shake hands or pat someone on the back. Personal Zone: This zone, extending from 18 inches to about 4 feet, is where conversation with close friends and colleagues takes place. Unlike interaction in the intimate zone, normal talking is frequent in the personal zone. Some, but not a great deal of, business interaction occurs here; for example, business lunches typically occur in this zone. Social Zone: From 4 feet to 12 feet, the social zone is where most business exchanges occur. Informal business conferences and staff meetings occur within this space. Public Zone: The public zone extends from 12 feet to as far as the eye can see and the ear can hear, It is the most formal zone, and the least significant interactions occur here. Because of the great distance, communication in the public zone is often one way, as from a speaker to a large audience. Competent communicators recognize their own personal space needs and the needs of others. When communicating with people who prefer more or less space, the competent communicator makes the adjustments necessary to facilitate reaching his or her objective. COMMUNICATING IN A DIVERSE ENVIRONMENT Paying attention to the needs of others means that we recognize and accept diversity. When we talk about diversity, we mean cultural differences not only within the American and Canadian work force but also in the worldwide marketplace. The United States is a major participant in international business—both as a buyer and as a seller. This country is the world's largest importer of goods and services and the world's second largest exporter. The dominant role that the United States thus plays in the global economy does not, however, mean that international business matters are handled "the American way!' Some years ago a book called The Ugly American condemned Americans abroad for their "Let 'us do it our way or not at all" attitude. When we talk about culture, we mean the customary traits, attitudes, and behaviors of a group of people. Ethnocentrism is the belief that one's own cultural group is superior Such an attitude hinders communication, understanding, and goodwill between trading partners. An attitude of arrogance is not only counterproductive but also unrealistic, considering that the U.S. population represents less than 5% of the world population. Moreover, of the world's countries, the United States is currently fourth in population and is expected to drop to eighth place by the year 2050.10 Another fact of life in international business is that comparatively few Americans speak a foreign language. Although English is the major language for conducting business worldwide, it would be naive to assume that it is the other person's responsibility to learn English. Diversity will have profound effects on our lives and will pose a growing challenge for managers (see, for example, Spotlight 4, "Internationally Yours," on page 5t). The following discussion provides useful guidance for communicating with people from different cultures—both internationally as well as domestically. Although it is helpful to be aware of cultural differences, competent communicators recognize that each member of a culture is an individual, with individual needs, perceptions, and experiences, and should be treated as such. CULTURAL DIFFERENCES Cultures differ widely in the traits they value. For example, as shown in Table 2.1 on page 52, international cultures differ widely in their emphasis on individualism, long-term orientation, time orientation, power distance, uncertainty avoidance, formality, materialism, and context-sensitivity. (You should be aware, of course, that just as you are learning the international way of communicating, other cultures are learning the American way of communicating. At some point, perhaps one universal way of communicating will emerge—but don't hold your breath!) Each person interprets events through his or her mental filter, and that filter is based on the receiver's unique knowledge, experiences, and viewpoints. For example, the Language of time is as different among cultures as the language of words. Americans, Canadians, Germans, and Japanese are very time conscious and very precise 5
about appointments; Latin American and Arab cultures tend to be more casual about time. For example, if your Mexican host tells you that e or she will meet with you at three, it's most likely mås o menos (Spanish for 'more or less"). Businesspeople in both Asian and Latin American countries tend to favor long negotiations and slow deliberations. They exchange pleasantries at some length before getting down to business. Likewise, many non-Western cultures use the silent intervals for contemplation, whereas businesspeople from the United States and Canada tend to have little tolerance for silence in business negotiations. As a result Americans and Canadians may rush in and offer compromises and counterproposals that would have been unnecessary if they had shown more patience. Body language, especially gestures and eye contact, also varies among cultures. For example, our sign for "okay"—forming a circle with our forefinger and thumb—means "zero" in France, "money" in Japan, and a vulgarity in Brazil (see Figure 2.3). Americans and Canadians consider eye contact important. In Asian and many Latin American countries, however, looking a partner full in the eye is considered an irritating sign of ill breeding. Touching behavior is very culture-specific. Many Asians do not like to be touched, except for a brief handshake in greeting. However, handshakes in much of Europe tend to last much longer than in the United States and Canada, and Europeans tend to shake hands every time they see each other, perhaps several times a day. Germans typically use a firm grip and one shake; Asians typically grasp the other's hand delicately and shake only briefly. In much of Europe, men often kiss each other upon greeting; unless an American or Canadian businessperson is aware of this custom, he or she might react inappropriately. Our feelings about space are partly an outgrowth of our culture and partly a result of geography and economics. For example, Americans and Canadians are used to wide-open spaces and tend to move about expansively, using hand and arm motions for emphasis. But in Japan, which has much smaller living and working spaces, such abrupt and extensive body movements are not typical. Likewise, Americans and Canadians tend to sit face to face, so that they can maintain eye contact, whereas the Chinese and Japanese (to whom eye contact is not as important) tend to sit side by side during negotiations. Also, the sense of personal space differs among cultures. In the United States and Canada, most business exchanges occur at about five feet, within the so-called social zone discussed earl it However, both in the Middle East and in Latin American countries, this distance is too far. Businesspeople there tend to stand close enough to feel your breath as you speak. Most Americans and Canadians tend to back away unconsciously from such close contact. Finally, social behavior is very culture-dependent. For example, in the Japanese culture, the matter of who bows first upon meeting, how deeply the person bows, and how long the bow is held is very dependent upon one's status. Competent communicators become familiar with such role-related behavior and also learn the customs regarding giving (and accepting) gifts, exchanging business cards, the degree of formality expected, and the accepted means of entertaining and being entertained. GROUP-ORIENTED BEHAVIOR As shown earlier in Table 2.1 on page 52, the business environment in a capitalistic society such as the United States and Canada places great value on the contributions of the individual toward the success of the organization. Individual effort is often stressed more than group effort, and a competitive atmosphere prevails. In other cultures, however, originality and independence of judgment are not valued as highly as teamwork. The Japanese say, 'A nail standing out will be hammered down." Thus, the Japanese go to great lengths to reach decisions through consensus, wherein every participating member, not just a majority, is able to agree. Closely related to the concept of group-oriented behavior is the notion of' saving face: ' The desire to save face simply means that neither party in a given interaction should suffer embarrassment. Human relationships are highly valued in Japanese cultures and are embodied in the concept of was, or the Japanese pursuit of harmony. This concept makes it difficult for the Japanese to say no" to a request because it would be implosive. They are very reluctant to offend others—even if they unintentionally mislead them instead. Thus, a "yes" to a Japanese might mean "Yes, I understand you" rather than "Yes, I agree:' Latin Americans also tend to avoid an outright "no" in their business dealings, preferring instead a milder, less explicit, response. In intercultural communications, one has to read between the lines, because what is left unsaid or unwritten may be just as important as what is said or written. STRATEGIES FOR COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES When communicating with people from different cultures, whether abroad or at home, use the following strategies. Maintain formality to the traditional American and Canadian culture, most other cultures value and respect a much more formal approach to business dealings. Call others by their titles and family names unless specifically asked to do otherwise. By both verbal and nonverbal clues, convey an attitude of propriety and decorum. Most other cultures do not equate formality with coldness. 6
Show Respect Withhold judgment, accepting the premise that attitudes held By an entire culture are probably based on sound reasoning. Listen carefully to what is being communicated, trying to understand the other person's feelings. Learn about your host country—its geography, form of government, largest cities, culture, current events, and the like. Communicate Clearly To ensure that your oral and written messages are understood, follow these guidelines: Avoid slang, jargon, and other figures of speech. Expressions such as "They'll eat that up" or "out in left field" are likely to confuse even a fluent English speaker. Be specific and illustrate your points with concrete examples. Provide and solicit feedback; summarize frequently; provide a written summary of the points covered in a meeting; ask your counterpart to paraphrase what has been said; encourage questions. Use a variety of media: handouts (distributed before the meeting to allow time for reading), audiovisual aids, models, and the like. Avoid attempts at humor; humor is likely to be lost on your counterpart. Speak plainly and slowly (but not so slowly as to appear condescending), choosing your words carefully. Value Diversity Those who view diversity among employees as a source of richness and strength for the organization can help bring a wide range of benefits to their organization. 'Whether you happen to belong to the majority culture or to one of the minority cultures where you work, you will share your work and leisure hours with people different from yourself—people who have values, mannerisms, and speech habits different from your own. This statement is true today, and it will be even truer in the future, The same strategies apply whether the cultural differences exist at home or abroad. A person who is knowledgeable about, and comfortable with, different cultures is a more effective manager because he or she can avoid misunderstandings and tap into the greater variety of viewpoints that a diverse culture provides. In addition, such understanding provides personal satisfaction. DIVERSITY WITHIN THE UNITED STATES Perhaps, up to this point, you have been inferring that you must leave the United States and Canada to encounter cultures different from your own. Nothing could be Ethnicity Issues in Communication As shown in Figure 2.4 above, the white American population is declining as a percentage of the total population, while Asian and Hispanic populations are increasing. For example, from 1990 to 2000, according to U.S. census figures, the major ethnic groups showed these population increases: '4 • Asian 74.3% • Hispanic 57.9% •Black 21.1% •White 5.3% As of the 2000 census, the size of the Hispanic and non-Hispanic black populations were about equal in the United States. '5 Even disregarding international implications, these findings will have major effects on the way Americans conduct business—and the way we communicate. Consider these additional facts from the U.S. Census Bureau: There is a 40% chance that two randomly selected North Americans will be of different racial or ethnic backgrounds. In 14% of U.S. homes, a language other than English is primarily spoken. Of all new entrants into the work force, 43% are people of color and immigrants. Women and people of color will account for 70% of the work force in the year 2000. The discussion that follows uses the group terminology of the U.S. Census Bureau: white, black, Hispanic (black or white), and Asian. You should recognize, however, that some white Americans prefer the term "European Americans' some black Americans prefer the term "African Americans' some Hispanic Americans prefer the term "Latinos' and some Asian Americans prefer to be identified by their country of origin—for example, as "Chinese American" or "Indonesian American' Others prefer still other designations. 7
When communicating about minorities, the first thing we should realize is that what we call ourselves is not a trivial matter. Names matter—a great deal. And the terms used to refer to other groups are not ours to establish. We should follow the self- identity of the group being referred to or the person being communicated with. Perhaps the second thing we should realize is that ethnicity is not a characteristic limited to people of color; white Americans are ethnic, too. Every ethnic and racial group in the world-all 6 billion of us -has its own physical and cultural characteristics. Of course, every person within an ethnic group has his or her own individual characteristic as well. Is it any wonder, then, that communicating about ethnic and racial matters is so hazardous? Yet we have no choice. We must learn to communicate comfortably and assumption, or present only one side of the story, our readers or listeners will let us know soon enough. In spotlight 6, "Race Manners: The Color of Speech," above writer Bruce A. Jacobs highlights possible flashpoints in communications between white Americans and Black Americans. Do you agree or disagree with his analysis? Why? Gender Issues In Communication Gender roles consist of the learned behavior associated with being male or female. Certain differences typically exist in male/female communication patterns: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Women communicate largely to build rapport; men communicate primarily to preserve independence and status by displaying knowledge and skill. Men prefer to work out their problems by themselves. , whereas women prefer to talk out solutions with another person. Women are more likely to compliment the work of a coworker; men are more likely to be critical. Men tend to interrupt to dominate a conversation or to change the subject; women tend to interrupt to agree with or to support what another person is saying. Men tend to be more directive in their conversation, whereas women emphasize politeness. Men are more interested than women in calling attention to their own accomplishments. Men tend to dominate discussions during meetings. Men tend to dominate discussi9ns during meetings. Men tend to internalize successes ("That's one of my strength") and to externalize failures ("We should have been given more time"). Women tend to externalize successes ("I'm just not good at that"). Even when gender is not readily apparent in online communication, men and women have recognizably different styles in posting to the Internet. Recognize that these differences often (but not always) do exist (see Figure 2.5). Thus, women should not take it personally if a male coworker fails to praise their work; he may simply be engaging in gender-typical behavior. If a male manager feels that a female colleague is more interested in relating to others in the group and seeking consensus than in solving the problem, she may simply be engaging in gender-typical behavior. Competent communicators seek to understand and adapt to these differences. According to Alice Sargeant, author of The Androgynous Manager, Men and women should learn from one another without abandoning successful traits they already possess. Men can learn to be more collaborative and intuitive, yet remain result-oriented. Women need not give up being nurturing in order to learn to be comfortable with power and conflict. Communicating with People with Disabilities Since the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed, more physically disabled individuals than ever before have been able to enter the workplace. The act protects approximately 43 million U.S. citizens who have physical or mental impairments that significantly limit a major life activity. It guarantees that persons with disabilities who are qualified to perform the essential functions of a job, with or without reasonable accommodation, will not be discriminated against in hiring and promotion in most public and private organizations. But competent communicators go beyond the legal requirements. Depending on each individual situation, some reasonable changes in the way you communicate will be appreciated. For example, when being introduced to someone who uses a wheelchair, bend over slightly to be closer to eye level. If the person is able to extend his or her hand for a lengthy, offer your hand. For lengthy conversations, sit down so that you are both eye to eye. People who use wheelchairs may see their wheelchairs as extensions of their personal space, so avoid touching or leaning on their wheelchair Most hearing-impaired people use a combination of hearing and lip reading. Face the person to whom you're speaking, and speak a bit slower (but not louder) than usual. It may also be helpful to lower the pitch of your voice. When talking with a person who is blind, deal in words rather than in gestures or glances. As you approach him or her, make your presence known; if in a group, address the person by name so that he or she will know to whom you are talking. Identify yourself and use your normal voice and speed. 8
Everyone needs help at one time or another. If someone with a disability looks as if he or she needs assistance, ask whether help is wanted and follow the person's wishes. But resist the temptation to take too much care of an individual with a disability. Don't be annoying or patronizing. Always, everywhere, avoid using language like "Are you deaP" "He's a little slow," or "What are you; blind?" Such language is disrespectful to those with physical or cognitive disabilities; in fact, such language is disrespectful to everyone. When making presentations, consider the needs of those with disabilities—in terms of seating, handouts and other visual aids, and the like. As always when communicating, the best advice is to know your audience. Also, see the "unseen." Recognize that some disabilities are invisible. Be alert and sensitive to colleagues who may have allergies or other sensitivities, unseen physical disabilities, addictions, or other life-threatening (or even fatal) conditions. Accept accommodations as a normal part of the workplace. We all need accommodations of some sort, not necessarily a wheelchair but perhaps a standard office chair that needs adjustment for users of different height. Embrace the idea that accommodating coworkers, customers, and guests with disabilities is a normal function of the workplace. In short, show that you are a team player who values social inclusion. Most important, relax. Insofar as possible, forget about the disability, and treat the person as you would anyone else. That person was hired because of the contribution he or she could make to the organization—not because of the disability. LISTENING Effective communication—whether across continents or across a conference table—requires both sending and receiving messages—both transmission and reception. Whether you are making a formal presentation to 500 people or conversing with one person over lunch, your efforts will be in vain if your audience does not listen. Listening involves much more than' just hearing. You can hear and not listen (just as you can listen and not understand). Hearing is simply perceiving sound; sound waves strike the eardrum, sending impulses to the brain. Hearing is a passive process, whereas listening is an active process. V/hen you perceive a sound, you're merely aware of it; you don't necessarily comprehend it. When you listen, you interpret and assign meaning to the sounds. Consider the automobile you drive. When the car is operating normally, even though you hear the sound of the engine as you're driving, you're barely aware of it; you tend to tune it out. But the minute the engine begins to make a strange sound— not necessarily louder or harsher, but just different—you immediately tune back in, listening intently to try to discern the nature of the problem. You heard the normal hum of the engine but listened to the strange noise. - THE PROBLEM OF POOR LISTENING SKILLS Listening is the communication skill we use the most. 'White-collar workers typically devote at least 40% of their workday to listening. Yet immediately after hearing a ten-minute oral presentation, the average person retains only 50% of the information, Forty-eight hours later, only 25% of what was heard can be recalled.20 Thus, listening is probably the least developed of the four verbal communication skills (writing, reading, speaking, and listening). One of the major causes of poor listening is that most people have simply not been taught how to listen well. Think back to your early years in school. How much class time was devoted to teaching you to read and write? How many opportunities were you given to read aloud, participate in plays, or speak before a group? Chances are that reading, writing, and perhaps speaking were heavily stressed in your on his or her remarks, thereby drawing out further insights. It also helps create a quieter, calmer, more respectful atmosphere, one that is more conducive to solving the problem at hand education. But how much formal training have you had in listening? If you're typical, the answer is "Not much: Another factor that contributes to poor listening skill is the disparity between the speed at which we normally speak and the speed at which our brains can process data. We can think faster than we can speak— about four times faster, as a matter of fact. Thus, when listening to others, our minds begin to wander, and we lose our ability to concentrate on what is being said. The results of ineffective listening include such problems as instructions not being followed, equipment broken from misuse, sales lost, feelings hurt, morale lowered, productivity decreased, rumors started, and health risks increased. Still, poor listening skills are not as readily apparent as poor speaking or writing skills. It's easy to spot a poor speaker or writer but much more difficult to spot a poor listener because a poor listener can fake attention. In fact, the poor listener may not even be aware of this weakness. He or she may mistake hearing for listening. KEYS TO BETTER LISTENING 9
The good news is that you can improve your listening skills. Tests at the University of Minnesota show that individuals who receive training in listening improve their listening skills by 25% to 42%.21 To learn to listen more effectively, whether you're involved in a one-on-one dialogue or are part of a mass audience, give the speaker your undivided attention, stay open-minded, avoid interrupting, and involve yourself in the communication. Give the Speaker Your Undivided Attention During a business presentation, a member of the audience may hear certain familiar themes, think "Oh no, not agairV' and proceed to tune the speaker out. Or during a conference with a subordinate, an executive may make or take phone calls, doodle, play around with a pen or pencil, or do other distracting things that give the speaker the impression that what he or she has to say is unimportant or uninteresting. Physical distractions are the easiest to eliminate. Simply shutting the door or asking your assistant to hold all calls will eliminate many interruptions during personal conferences. If you're in a meeting where the environment is noisy, the temperature too cold or hot or the chairs uncomfortable, try to tune out the distractions rather than the speaker. Learn to ignore those annoyances over which you have no control and concentrate instead on the speaker and what he or she is saying. Mental distractions are more difficult to eliminate. But with practice ad effort, you can discipline yourself, for example, to temporarily forget about your fatigue or to put competing thoughts out of your mind so that you can give the speaker your attention. Just as it is important for the speaker to maintain eye contact with the whole audience, it is also important for the listener to maintain eye contact with the speaker. Doing so sends the message that you're interested in what the speaker has to say, and the speaker will be more likely to open up to you and provide the information We talk about giving the speaker your undivided attention. Actually, it would be more accurate to say that you give the speaker's comments your undivided attention; that is, you should focus on the content of the talk and not be overly concerned about how the talk is delivered. It is true, of course, that nonverbal clues do provide important information. However, do not be put off by the fact that the speaker may have dressed inappropriately, spoken too fast or in an unfamiliar accent, or appeared nervous. Almost always, what is said is more important than how it is said. likewise, avoid dismissing a topic simply because it is uninteresting or is presented in an uninteresting manner. "Boring" does not mean unimportant. Some information that may be boring or difficult to follow may in fact prove to be quite useful to you and thus well worth your effort to give it your full attention. Stay Open-Minded Regardless of whom you're listening to or what the topic is, keep your emotions in check. Listen objectively and empathetically. Be willing to accept new information and new points of view, regardless of whether they mesh with your existing beliefs. Concentrate on the content of the message rather than on its source. Don't look at the situation as a win/lose proposition; that is, don't consider that the speaker wins and you lose if you concede the merits of his or her position. Instead, think of it as a win/win situation: the speaker wins by convincing you of the merits of his or her position, and you win by gaining new information and insights that will help you perform your duties more effectively. Maintain neutrality as long as possible, and don't jump to conclusions too quickly. Instead, try to understand why the speaker is arguing a particular point of view and what facts or experience convinced the speaker to adopt this position. When you assume this empathetic frame of reference, you will likely find that you neither completely agree with nor completely disagree with every point the speaker makes. This ability to evaluate the message objectively will help you gain the most from the exchange. Don't Interrupt Perhaps because of time pressures, we sometimes get impatient. As soon as we've figured out what a person is going to say, we tend to interrupt to finish the sentence for the speaker; this practice is especially a problem when listening to a show speaker. Or as soon as we can think of a counterargument, we tend to rush right in—regardless of whether the speaker has finished or even paused for a breath. Such interruptions have many negative consequences. First, they are rude. Second, instead of speeding up the exchange, such interruptions actually tend to drag it out because they often interfere with the speaker's train of thought, causing backtracking. The most serious negative consequence, however, is the nonverbal message such an interruption sends: "l have the right to interrupt you because what I have to say is more important than what you have to say!" Is it any wonder, then, that such a message hinders effective communication? Involve Yourself As we have said, hearing is passive whereas listening is active. You should be doing something while the other person is speaking (and we don't mean doodling, staring out the window, or planning your afternoon activities). Much of what you should be doing is mental. Summarize to yourself what the speaker is saying; create what the experts call an internal paraphrase of the speaker's comments. We can process information much faster than the speaker can present it, so use that extra time for active listening—ensuring that you really are hearing not only what the person is saying but the motives and implications as well. 10
Some listeners find it helpful to jot down points, translating their mental notes into written notes. If you do so, keep your notes brief; don't become so busy writing down the facts that you miss the message. Concentrate on the main ideas; if you get them, you'll be much more likely to remember the supporting details later. Recognize also that even if a detail or two of the speaker's message might be inaccurate or irrelevant, the major points may still be valid. Evaluate the validity of the overall argument; don't get bogged down in trivia. Be selfish in your listening. Constantly ask yourself, How does this point affect me? How can I use this information to further my goals or to help myself perform my job more effectively? Personalizing the information will help you to concentrate more easily and to weigh the evidence more objectively—even if the topic is difficult to follow or uninteresting and even if the speaker has some annoying mannerisms or an unpleasant personality. Encourage the speaker by letting him or her know that you're actively involved in the exchange. Maintain eye contact, nod in agreement, lean forward, utter encouraging phrases such as "Uh huh" or "l see." In a conversation, ensure that your mental paraphrases are on target by summarizing aloud for the speaker what you think you're hearing. You can give such feedback as " So you believe is that true?" or "Do you mean that . ?" which in turn enables the speaker to clarify remarks, add new information, or clear up any misconceptions. Further, it tells the speaker that you're paying attention to the exchange. BUSINESS MEETINGS Much of the listening you'll do in the workplace will be in the context of business meetings. Meetings serve a wide variety of purposes in the organization. They keep members informed of events related to carrying out their duties; they provide a forum for soliciting input, solving problems, and making decisions; and they promote unity and cohesiveness among the members through social interaction. Considering these important purposes, it is not surprising that as many as 20 million meetings take place each day in America. The average executive spends 25% to 70% of his or her day in meetings (an average of three hours per day, according to research by MCI WorldCom Conferencing)—and considers about a third of them to be unproductive. No wonder, then, many managers complain that "meningitis" has become a national plague in American business. (Someone once described a meeting as an occasion for a group of people to keep minutes and waste hours.) The typical American business meeting is a staff meeting held in a company conference room for just under two hours, with no written agenda distributed in advance? The ability to conduct and participate in meetings is a crucial managerial skill. One survey of more than 2,000 business leaders showed that executives who run a meeting well are perceived to be better managers by both their superiors and their peers. To use meetings as an effective managerial tool, you need to know not only how to run them but also when to call them and how to follow up afterward. Like so many decisions you will have to make about communication, your choices will be guided by what you hope to accomplish. PLANNING THE MEETING When you add up the hourly salaries and fringe benefits of those planning and attending a meeting, the cost can be considerable. Managers must make sure they're getting their money's worth from a meeting, and that guarantee requires careful planning: identifying the purpose and determining whether a meeting is really necessary, preparing an agenda, deciding who should attend, and planning the logistics. Identifying Your Purpose The first step is always to determine your purpose. The more specific you can be, the better results you will get. A purpose such as "to discuss how to make our marketing representatives more effective" is vague and therefore not as helpful as '(to decide whether to purchase cellular phones for our marketing representatives:' The more focused your purpose, the easier it will be to select a means of accomplishing that purpose. Determining Whether a Meeting is Necessary Sometimes meetings are not the most efficient means of communication. For example, a short memo or email message is more efficient than a face-to-face meeting to communicate routine information. Similarly, it doesn't make sense to use the weekly staff meeting of ten people to hold a long discussion involving only one or two of the members. A phone call or smaller meeting would accomplish that task more quickly and at less cost. However, alternative means of conveying or securing information often present their own problems. Some people don't read written messages carefully, or they interpret them differently. Time is lost in transmitting and responding to written messages. And information may be garbled as it moves from person to person and from level to level. Preparing an Agenda Once you've established your specific purpose, you need to consider in more detail what topics the meeting will cover and in what order. This list of topics, or agenda, will accomplish two things: (I) it will help you prepare for the meeting by showing what background information you'll need, and it will help you run the meeting by keeping you focused on your plan. Knowing what topics will be discussed will also help those attending the meeting to plan for the meeting effectively reviewing needed documents, bringing pertinent records, deciding what questions need to be raised, and the like. The survey of 2,000 business leaders mentioned earlier revealed that three-fourths of the managers consider agendas to be essential for efficient meetings; yet nearly half the meetings they attend are not accompanied by written agendas. 11
Formal, recurring business meetings might follow an agenda like this one; of Course, not every meeting will contain all these elements: 1. Call to order 2. Roll call (if necessary) 3. Reading and approval of minutes of previous meeting (if necessary) 4. Reports of officers and standing committees 5. Reports of special committees 6. Old business 7. New business 8. Announcements 9. Program 10. Adjournment Each item to be covered under these headings should be identified, including the speaker (if other than the chair); for example: 7. NEW BUSINESS a. Review of December 3 press conference b. Recommendation for annual charitable contribution c. Status of remodeling—Jan Fischer Deciding Who Should Attend A great number of ad hoc meetings take place each business day for the purpose of solving a specific problem. If you must decide who will attend a particular meeting, your first concern is how the participants relate to your purpose. Who will make the decision? Who will implement the decision? Who can provide needed background information? On the one hand, you want to include all who can contribute to solving the problem; on the other hand, you want to keep the meeting to a manageable number of people. Consider also how the potential group members differ in status within the organization, iii knowledge about the issue, in communication skills, and in personal relationships. The greater the differences, the more difficult it will be to involve everyone in a genuine discussion aimed at solving the problem. Don't underestimate the impact of potential group members' hidden agendas. If any member's personal goals for the meeting differ from the group goals, conflicts can arise, and the quality of the resulting decisions can be impaired. Meeting separately with some of the important participants ahead of time might help to identify sources of potential dissension and provide clues for dealing with them. Membership in recurring meetings (such as a committee meeting) is relatively fixed, Even for these meetings, the planner must decide whether outsiders should be invited to observe, participate, or simply be available as resource people. Determining Logistics It would be unwise to schedule a meeting that requires extensive discussion and creative problem solving at the end of the workday, when members may be exhausted emotion7ally and physically. Likewise, it would be counterproductive to schedule a three-hour meeting in a room equipped with un cushioned fold-up chairs, poor lighting, and extreme temperatures. Instead, facilitate group problem solving by making intelligent choices about the timing and location of the meeting, room and seating arrangements, types of audiovisual equipment, and the like. Doing so will increase the likelihood of achieving the goals of the meeting. CONDUCTING THE MEETING Planning for a meeting goes a long way toward ensuring its success, but the manager's job is by no means over when the meeting begins. A manager must be a leader during the meeting, keeping the group focused on the point and encouraging participation. Punctuality Unless a high-level member or one whose input is vital to the business at hand is tardy, make it a habit to begin every meeting on time. Doing so will send a powerful nonverbal message to chronic late arrivers that business will conducted and decisions made whether or not they're present. 12
If you wait for latecomers, you send the message to those who were punctual that they wasted their time by being prompt. As a result, they will probably arrive late for subsequent meetings. And the habitual late arrivers will then begin arriving even later! Avoid this vicious cycle by beginning (and ending) at the appointed times. Following the Agenda One key to a focused meeting is to follow the agenda. At formal meetings you will be expected to discuss all items on the published agenda and no items not on the agenda. The less formal the meeting, the more flexibility you have in allowing new topics to be introduced. It's always possible that new information that has a bearing on your problem may arise. To prevent discussion simply because you didn't include the item on your agenda would make it more difficult for you to achieve your purpose. But as leader of the meeting, you must make certain that new topics are directly relevant. Leading the Meeting Begin the meeting with a statement of your purpose and an overview of the agenda. As the meeting progresses, keep track of time. Don't the discussion get bogged down in details. Preventing people from talking too much or digressing from the topic requires tact. Comments like "I see your point, and that relates to what we were just discuss cussing" can keep you on track without offending the speaker. You'll also need encourage the participation of the quieter members of the group with comments like "Juan, how does this look from the perspective of your department?" If your purpose is to solve a problem, you should consider ahead of time how you will structure the discussion. The particular strategy you use (such as brain-storming or role-playing) wifi, of course, depend on the nature and importance the problem and the skills of the group members. For many topics and groups, simple discussion is all that is needed. As leader, you'll sometimes have to resolve conificts among members. Your first step is to make sure that all members understand the facts involved and that you and everyone else understand each person's position. You then need to examine each person's goals and search for alternatives that will satisfy the largest number of goals. At the end of the meeting, summarize for everyone what the meeting has accomplished. What was decided? What are the next steps? Review any assignments and make sure that everyone understands his or her responsibilities. During the meeting, someone—either an assistant, the leader, or someone the leader designates—should record what happens. That person must report objectively and not impose his or her own biases. Parliamentary Procedure Every group needs to adopt rules that permit the orderly transactions of business in meetings. The larger the group and the more important its mission, the more important it is to establish written rules of order (Called parliamentary procedure). Imagine, for example, the chaos that could result if a meeting did not follow the basic rule that only one person may have the floor and speak at a time! The basic principle of parliamentary procedure is that the minority shall be heard but that the majority shall prevail. The reference guide for parliamentary procedure—the authority used by governments, associations, and business organizations the world over— is Robert's Rules of Order,25 The rationale for using parliamentary procedure is given in the preface of that classic: The application of parliamentary law is the best method yet devised to enable assemblies of any size, with due regard for every member's opinion, to arrive at the general will on a maximum number of questions of varying complexity in a minimum time and under all kinds of internal climate ranging from total harmony to hardened or impassioned division of opinion.26 Roberts Rules of Order was written in 1896 by Gen. Henry M. Robert, a U.S. Army officer who was active in many civic and educational organizations; it has been revised periodically since then. The current edition contains more than 650 pages of rules and procedures; those that are most helpful for running the typical business meeting are summarized in Figure -2.6 on the following pages. Knowledge of basic parliamentary procedure is a strategic communication skill for managers. Anyone who runs a business meeting, whether at work or in connection with a professional, civic, or social organization, would do well to become familiar with the basic requirements of conducting meetings in a parliamentary manner. FOLLOWING UP THE MEETING Routine meetings may require only a short memorandum or email as a follow-up to what was decided. Formal meetings or meetings where controversial ideas were discussed may require a more formal summary. Minutes are an official record of the proceedings; they summarize what was discussed and what decisions were made. Generally, they should emphasize what was done at the meeting, not what was said by the members. Minutes may, however, present an intelligent summary of the points of view expressed on a particular issue, without names attached, followed by the decision made. Avoid presenting minutes that are either so short they lack the "flavor" of what transpired or so long they tend to be ignored. 13
The first paragraph of minutes should identify the type of meeting (regular or special); the meeting date, time, and place; the presiding officer; the names of those present (or absent) if customary; and the fact that the minutes of the previous meeting were read and approved. The body of the minutes should contain a separate paragraph for each topic. According to parliamentary procedure, the name of the maker of a motion, but not the seconder, should be entered in the minutes. The precise wording of motions, exactly as voted on, should also appear in minutes. It is often helpful to use the same subheadings as in the agenda. A sample portion of the minutes of a business meeting follows: Review of December 3 Press Conference A videotape of the December 3 press conference conducted by Donita Doyle was viewed and discussed. Roger England's motion that "Donita Doyle be commended for the professional and ethical manner in which she presented the company's view at the December 3 press conference" was adopted unanimously without debate. Recommendation for Annual Charitable Contribution Tinrah Porisupatani moved "that American Chemical donate $15,000 to a worthwhile charity operating in Essex County." Linda Peters moved to amend the motion by inserting the words "an amount not exceeding" after the word "donate." On a motion by Todd Chandler, the motion to make a donation, with the pending amendment, was referred for further study to the Social Responsibility Committee with instructions to recommend a specific amount and charity and report at the next meeting. The last paragraph of the minutes should state the time of adjournment and, if appropriate, the time set for the next meeting, The minutes should be signed by the person preparing them. If someone other than the chair prepares the minutes, they should be read and approved by the chair before being distributed. BUSINESS ETIQUETTE Business etiquette is the practice of polite and appropriate behavior in the business setting. It dictates what behaviors are proper and under what circumstances; thus, F business etiquette is really concerned with interaction between people—not meaningless ritual. Each organization has its own rules about what is and is not considered fitting in terms of dress, ways of addressing superiors, importance of punctuality, and the like. In addition, every country and every culture has its own rules. Generally, these rules are not written down but must be learned informally or through observation. Executives who follow correct business etiquette are more confident and appear more in charge; and the higher you advance in your career, the more important such behavior will become. Business etiquette differs in many ways from social etiquette. The manager who enumerates all his or her accomplishments to the superior during a performance appraisal is simply being savvy; the manager who does so during a social engagement is being boorish. You must b sensitive to what is appropriate under any given circumstances. Good manners are good business; they communicate a strong positive message about you as a person. As Mark Twain once observed about etiquette, "Always do & right: you will please some people and astonish the rest.' MEETING AND GREETING The important point to remember about making introductions is simply to make them. The format you use is less important than the fact that you avoid the awkwardness of requiring two people to introduce themselves. The basic rule for introductions is to present the lower-ranking person to the higher-ranking person, regardless of age or gender: "Mr. CEO, this is my new assistant:' If the persons you're introducing are equal in rank, mention the older one first, mention the guest first, or (traditionally) mention the woman first. The format for an introduction might be like this: "Helen, I'd like you to meet Carl Byrum. Carl just began working here as an account manager. Carl, this is Helen Smith, our vice president:' Or in a social situation, you might just say, "Rosa, this is Gene Stauffer. Gene, Rosa Bennett:' The appropriate response to an introduction is "How do you do, Gene?" Regardless of the gender of the two people being introduced, either may initiate the handshake—a gesture of welcome. To help yourself remember the name of someone you've met, make a point of using his or her name when shaking hands. And using the person's name again at least once during the conversation will help fix that name in your mind. If you cannot remember someone's name, when the person approaches you, simply extend your hand and say your name. The other person will typically respond by shaking your hand and also giving his or her name. Whenever you greet an acquaintance whom you've met only once some time ago, introduce yourself and immediately follow it with some information to help the Other person remember, unless he or she immediately recognizers you-for example, "Hello, Mr. Wise, I'm Eileen Wagoner. We met at the Graham's party last month". 14
Today, most American businesspeople have business cards, although the protocol for exchanging them isn't as strict here as it is in some other countries. In business settings, you should present your card at the end of the encounter--as a way of establishing that you're interested in continuing the relationship. Never present your card during a meal (wait until it is over). And never offer your card at any time during a social function. DINING The restaurant you select for a business meal reflects on you and your organization. Choose one where the food is of top quality and the service dependable. In general, the more important your guest, the more exclusive the restaurant. If a maitre d' (headwaiter) seats you and your guest, your guest should precede you to the table, If you're seating yourselves, take the lead in locating an appropriate table. Give your guest the preferred seat, facing the window with an attractive view or facing the dining room if you're seated next to the wall. Here are some additional tips to follow for a successful and enjoyable business meal. The guests wait until the host unfolds the napkin and places it in the lap before doing the same. Do not begin eating until the host takes the first bite of food. To signal the waiter that you're ready to order, close your menu and lay it on the table. To get the server's attention, say "Excuse me" when he or she is nearby, or catch the server's eye and quietly signal for him or her to come to the table, or ask a nearby server to ask yours to come to your table. The host's order is generally taken last. If you leave the table during the meal, leave your napkin on your chair. At the end of the meal, place the napkin, unfolded, on the table. When using silverware, start from the outside. As shown in Figure 2.7 on page 75, your glass is the one at the right of your place setting. When passing food or condiments, pass to the right, offering items to someone else before you serve yourself. Don't put your elbows on the table while eating, although you may do so between courses. Place the knife across the top edge of the plate,. with the cutting edge toward you, when it is not being used. To signal the waiter that you are through with your plate, place your knife and fork diagonally across the middle of the plate. Spoon soup away from you. Avoid salting food before tasting it; if asked to pass the salt or pepper, pass both together. The person who issues the invitation is expected to pay the bill. In most parts of the country, the usual tip for standard service is 15% to 20% of the food and bar bill and 10% of the cost of the wine. An appropriate tip for the cloakroom attendant is $.50—$.75 per coat, or $1 in an expensive restaurant. If you. use valet parking, tip the attendant $1 $2 after your car is brought to the door Send a thank-you note immediately after the meal. Be sure to write more than a token note, mentioning something special about the decor, the food, the service, the company of the people with whom you dined, or your satisfaction with the business discussed. GIVING GIFTS Giving gifts to suppliers, customers, or workers within one's own organization is typical at many firms, especially in December during the holiday period. Although such gifts are often deeply appreciated, you must be sensitive in terms of whom you give a gift to and the type of gift you select. Most people would consider a gift appropriate if it meets these four Criteria. It is an impersonal gift. Gifts that can be used in the office or in connection with one's work are nearly always appropriate. It is for past favors. Gifts should he used to thank someone for past favors, business, or performance—not to create obligations for the future. A gift to a prospective customer who has never ordered from you before might be interpreted as a bribe. It is given to everyone in similar circumstances. Singling out one person for a gift and ignoring others in similar positions would not only embarrass the one selected but also create bad feelings among those who were ignored. It is not extravagant. A very expensive gift might make the recipient uneasy, create a sense of obligation, and call into question your motives for giving. 15
Although it is often the custom for a superior to give a subordinate a gift, especially one's assistant, it is less usual for the subordinate to give a personal gift to superior. More likely, coworkers- will contribute to a joint gift for the boss, again selecting one that is neither too expensive nor too personal. As always, follow local customs when giving gifts to international colleagues (see Spotlight 7, "Gift- Giving—Japanese Style:' on page 76). DRESSING APPROPRIATELY Different positions, different companies, and different parts of the country and world have different dress codes—some stated explicitly in the company manual, others communicated indirectly via corporate culture. In the absence of other information, you should choose well-tailored, clean, conservative clothing for the workplace. Dress-down days (like "Casual Fridays") have gained popularity in U.S. business. A Gallup poll found that 57% of U.S. companies now allow casual dress at least once a week.27 The adoption of these casual days has caused some confusion about what exactly is considered appropriate. These guidelines for "business casual" from Levi Strauss & Co. should prove helpful: 1. 2. 3. 4. Aim for a classic but understated look when selecting casual business wear. Pick clothing that is comfortable yet communicates a professional attitude. Subtle, quality accessories (such as belts, jewelry, and scarves) coordinated with an outfit can show attention to important details. Combine business wardrobe items with casual attire—for example, a button-down shirt with khakis and loafers, with either a more colorful tie or scarf or just a sport coat or sweater. Ask, "Am I successfully representing myself and my company?" Casual does not mean sloppy. Clothing should be clean, pressed or wrinkle- free, and without holes or frayed areas. Like suits and tailored clothing, casual business wear lasts longer and looks better with special care. Keep the focus on work quality. Anything worn to the gym or beach (or to clean the garage) should be left at home. Avoid clothing that is too revealing or tight-fitting. Trendy or "high-fashion" clothing may communicate a whimsical or pretentious attitude that is not suitable for most T-shirts with messages other than the company's logo are probably not a good idea. Keep clothing colors muted and coordinated to help create a casual does not mean sloppy. professional appearance. offices. Business 5. 6. 7. 8. Pay attention to the fit of your clothing. Pants should break just above the shoe, sleeves should reach the base of the hand and show just a bit of the cuff when a jacket is worn, and shirt collars should button comfortably without pinching or leaving gaps. Also, if a tie is worn, its tip should reach just below the bottom of the belt buckle. Shoes matter. Leather shoes are generally preferable, but if athletic shoes are allowed, make sure they are clean, subtle in design, and scuff-free. Leather shoes look best when polished and in good repair. For most offices, open-toed sandals and beach thongs are not appropriate. Take the day's schedule into account when dressing. If a meeting with visitors is scheduled, dress more traditionally or check to see if casual dress might be appropriate. When in doubt, leave it out. Casual clothing should make the employee and coworkers work more comfortably. Ask the manager ahead of time if you have any questions. AROUND THE OFFICE Many situations occur every day in the typical office that call for common courtesy. The basis for appropriate behavior is always the golden rule: "Treat others as you yourself would like to he treated: Drinking Coffee If there is a container provided to pay for the coffee, do so every time you take a cup; don't force others to treat you to a cup of coffee. Also, take your turn making the coffee and cleaning the pot if that is a task performed by the group. Although in most offices it is acceptable to drink coffee or some other beverage while working, some offices have an unwritten rule against snacking at one's desk. Regardless, never eat while talking to someone in person or on the telephone. Smoking Many offices today have designated smoking areas, and many prohibit smoking anywhere on the premises. If you smoke, follow the rules strictly. Smoking in public anywhere is increasingly considered bad manners, not to mention a health hazard. Using the Copier or Fax Machine If you're using the copier or fax machine for a large job, and someone approaches with a small job, let that person go ahead of you. Also, be sure to refill the paper holder after completing a job, and reset the copier machine counter after using it. (The next user, intending to make one copy, will not appreciate having to wait for—and pay for— 100 copies instead, simply because you failed to reset the counter.) 16
17
SUMMARY Teams can accomplish more and better-quality work in less time than individuals can if the teams function properly. Otherwise, teams can waste time and cause interpersonal conflicts. Conflict about ideas is a helpful part of the group process, whereas interpersonal conflicts are detrimental. An appropriate emphasis on consensus and conformity is productive, but too much emphasis can lead to group- think, wherein legitimate differences of opinion are not even discussed. At the beginning, group members should get to know one another and set operating rules. They should also acknowledge the need for positive and negative feedback and know how to give productive feedback, including providing helpful feedback on team writing. When problems arise, group members should react to them appropriately, consider them as group problems, and be realistic about what to expect from the group. For group writing projects, team members should develop a work schedule and meet regularly to ensure proper coordination. Either one person can be assigned to write the draft, or the parts can be divided among group members. Everyone, however, should be involved in revising the draft. Nonverbal communication includes body movement, physical appearance, voice qualities, time, touch, and space and territory. Cultures differ greatly in terms of how they interpret nonverbal behavior and in terms of the importance they attach to group as opposed to individual behavior. Competent communicators maintain formality, show respect, remain flexible, and write and speak clearly when communicating with people of different cultures. Even if you live and work in a small community in the United States, you will be communicating with, and should learn to be comfortable with, people with different ethnic backgrounds, different genders, and different types of disabilities. Listening is the most used but least developed of the verbal communication skills. Whether listening to a formal presentation or conversing with one or two people, you can learn to listen more effectively by giving the speaker your undivided attention, staying open-minded about the speaker and the topic, avoiding interrupting the speaker, and involving yourself actively in the communication. - Planning a business meeting requires determining your purpose and deciding whether a meeting is the most efficient way of accomplishing that purpose. You must then determine your agenda, decide who should attend, and plan such logistics as timing, location, and room arrangements. When conducting a meeting, begin with a statement of your purpose and agenda. Then follow the agenda, keeping things moving along. Control those who talk too much, and encourage those who talk too little. Use whatever strategies seem appropriate for solving problems and managing conflicts. At the end of the meeting, send a follow-up memo if needed or distribute minutes of the meeting. Business etiquette is a guide to help people behave appropriately in business situations. To be effective in business, learn how to make introductions, conduct business lunches, give suitable gifts, dress appropriately, and maintain good working relationships around the office. Good manners are good business. 18

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