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Note On BCE/BME Module 3

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Published in: B.Tech Tuition | Civil | Mechanical
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Move closer to completion with these crisp, comprehensive study notes for Module 4 of Basics of Civil/Mechanical Engineering (BCE/BME). This focused PDF provides the full content needed by B.Tech 1st Year students. Compatible with both the 2019 and New 2023 schemes, it is your essential guide for mastering Module 4 and performing well in your exams.

Krishnanjali / Palakkad

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  1. EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll MODULE 111 Building Construction: Foundations: Bearing capacity of soil (definition only), functions of foundations, types — shallow and deep (brief discussion only). Load bearing and framed structures (concept only). Brick masonry: - Header and stretcher bond, English bond & Flemish bond random rubble masonry. Roofs and floors: - Functions, types; flooring materials (brief discussion only). Basic infrastructure services: MEP, HVAC, elevators. escalators and ramps (Civil Engineering aspects only), fire safety for buildings. Green buildings:- Materials, energy systems, water management and environment for green buildings. (brief discussion only).. BUILDING CONSTRUCTION Foundation is the lowest part of a structure. It is below the ground level. The purpose of the foundation is to transmit the load of the superstructure to the soil below so that the structure is safe. The engineer has to study the properties of the soil and design the foundation accordingly. It should be ensured that the foundation can safely carry the loads. Requirements of Foundation: • The pressure exerted on the soil should not exceed the safe bearing capacity ofthe soil. • Settlement of the foundation should be within safe limit. • The foundation should be rigid \ Functions of Foundation: TO distribute the load Of the superstructure on a larger area without causing failure Of the soil To prevent excessive settlement of the building To provide stability to the structure against various disturbing forces such as rain , wind, and earthquake It provides stability against undermining or scouring by flood water or burrowing animals. To provide a level and firm surface for the construction of the superstructure Bearing Capacity Of Soil: The supporting power Of a soil or rock bed Ultimate bearing capacity:- Maximum intensity Of pressure which the foundation soil can withstand without the occurrence of shear failure 1 ICET
  2. EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll Safe bearing capacity: - Maximum intensity Of pressure that can be transmitted to the soil without the risk of shear failure irrespective of the settlement that might occur Safe bearing capacity: ultimate bearing capacity / Factor Of safety Allowable bearing pressure:- Intensity of pressure at which soil neither fails in shear nor undergoes excessive settlement which is detrimental to the stability of the structure Types Of Foundation: Two Foundation and Deep foundation types - Shallow l. Shallow foundation: A foundation is said to be shallow if its depth is less than or equal to its width. It is used when a hard soil layer is found at a shallow depth. Shallow foundations are also called spread footings or open footings. The 'open' refers to the fact that the foundations are made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the footing, and then constructing the footing. ie. Df/B< 1 Types Of Shallow Foundation 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Wall or strip footing Isolated/Column footing Combined footing Continuous footing Strap or cantilever footing Inverted Arch footing Raft or mat foundation Grillage Foundation i. Wall footing (Spread footing): Footing provided under a wall. It may be simple or stepped footing. For light load simple footing is provided which is only one foundation block. For heavy load total width of footing is very high and this is attained in three of four steps. 2 Wall or strip footing ICET
  3. iii. iv. EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll Isolated or Column footing:This footing is adopted for independent column. The size of the footing will depend on the load on the column and the type Of underlying soil. Types Of Footings Combined Footing: This is a common footing for two columns. This footing can be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape. This type of footing is adopted when one column is very near the boundary of a plot where there is not sufficient space for the footing. Cantilever or Strap Footing: This type of combined footing is adopted when the distance between the columns is quite large .A strap beam is provided connecting the slabs under each column. 3 ICET
  4. EST 120- CCLIJLOFOO'&S CCU.J%FOCTING Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll v. Continuous or Strip Footing:This type of footing is adopted when more than two columns are to be constructed in one line very close to each other. Mat or Raft Foundation: The individual columns may be heavily loaded or the safe bearing capacity of the soil may be low. In that case, a concrete slab cover the entire area below the building supporting the columns and walls. 4 ICET
  5. EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll vii. Grillage Foundation: In some buildings, steel columns embedded in concrete are to be constructed. The columns may have to carry heavy loads. In such situations, grillage foundation is adopted. It consists of one Or more tiers Of steel beams (I sections) inside concrete. A base plate will be provided at the base Of the column. 2:Peep Foundatioæ Foundation whose depth is much more compared to width is termed as deep foundation. They are used when the hard soil is at a great depth from the ground level. i.Pilefoundation:A pile is a slender column of wood, steel or concrete. It is driven into the ground or cast in a bore hole. Classification based on function or use: a. Load bearing piles i. End piles ii. Friction piles b. Non-load bearing piles i. Compaction piles ii. Sheet piles iii. Anchor piles iv. Batter piles v. Fender piles Classification Piles according to the load transfer; a) Friction piles- transfer the load through friction between the pile and soil. The length of the pile will depend on the frictional resistance. 5 ICET
  6. b) EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll End Bearing piles- transfer the load through bearing on a hard stratum. For this hard strata should be available at a reasonable depth. Classification of piles accordine to the material used: O O O O O O Concrete piles • Cast in situ piles Precast piles Steel piles Cast iron piles Timber piles Composite piles Sand piles Well foundation: It is preferred for weak soil in water logged areas and under water construction. Used for bridges and buildings near lakes or rivers. p lug 6 ICET
  7. EST 120- Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll BRICK MASONRY The art of construction Of bricks is called brick masonry. Brick masonry is made Of brick units bonded together with mortar. Definitiops 1. Header: It is shorter face Of a brick (9cm x 9 cm). The course Of brick work in which all the bricks are laid as headers is known as header course. 2. Stretcher: It is longer face Of a brick (19cm x 9 cm). The course of brick work in which all the bricks are laid as stretchers is known as stretcher course. 3. Course: A course is a horizontal layer Of bricks Or stones. 4. Bond: This is the method of arranging bricks so that the individual units are tied together. Bonding is essential to eliminate continuous vertical joints both in body as well as on the face of wall. 5. Quoins: These are the stones used for the corners of walls of a structure. 6. Bat: It is the portion of brick cut across the width. 7. Closer: It is the portion of the brick cut length wise in such a manner that its one long face remains uncut. 8. Queen closer: It is the portion of brick obtained by cutting a brick length wise into two portions. 9. King Closer: These are the portions Of a brick obtained by cutting Off the triangular piece between the center of one end and the center of one side. 12. Arris: It is the edge of a brick. 13. Frog: It is an indentation or depression on the top face of a brick made with the object of forming a key for the mortars. This reduces the weight of the brick also. 14. Plinth: It is the horizontal course of stone or brick provided at the base of the wall above ground level. It indicates the height of the ground level above the natural ground level. Full Brick (Half) Half Bat Bonds in brick work: The various types ofbonds generally used in brick masonry are I. Stretcher bond 2. Header bond 3. English bond and 4. Flemish bond. 5. Raking Bond 6. Zig Zag bond 7. Garden wall bond 7 ICET
  8. EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll 1. S(retcher bond: In this type Of bond all the bricks are arranged in stretcher course. The stretcher course is useful for one brick partition walls as there are no headers in such walls. 2. Header bond: In this type of bond all the bricks are arranged in header course. As there are only headers visible in elevation, this is known as header bond. It is useful for curved surfaces since the length will less. English bond:• This type of bond is generally used in practice. It is considered as the strongest bond in brick work. Features-of-English bond are, It consists Of alternate courses of headers and stretchers. Strongest bond Each header is centrally placed over a stretcher. In this bond, continuous vertical joints are not formed The middle portion of the thicker wall consists only headers. 8 ICET
  9. EST 120- Basics of Civil Engineering bock Modulelll In Flemish bond each course consists Of alternate headers and stretchers. Two types Of Flemish (i) Double Flemish bond :- In this bond, each course has the appearance same appearance both in the front face and in the back face. (ii) Single Flemish bond This bond consists Of double Flemish bond facing and English 2. 3. 4. tx)nd backing. So it has better appearance and good strength. English bond is stronger than Hemish bond. Double Flemish bond presents pleasing and better appearance . In the construction of Flemish bond good workmamship and careful supervision is needed. Double Flemish bond is economical than English bond. 9 ICET
  10. EST 120 - Set Fig. 13. S Double Flemish (one brick null STONE MASONRY Basics of Civil Engineering Double md Modulelll Fig. 13.6 Double Flemish Bond Masonry means construction of buildings using building blocks like stone. bricks, concrete blocks etc. Masonry is used for the construction of foundation, plinth, walls and columns. Mortar is the binding material for the building blocks. Mainly there are two types of stone masonry: I. Rubble Masonry 2. Ashlar Masonry. 1. Ruh.hlß.Masanzu In this type of constructions stones of irregular sizes and shapes are used. To remove sharp shapes they may be hammered. The joints are considerable wide. This may be further subdivided in to l. Uncoursed random rubble masonry 2. Coursed random rubble masonry 3. Dry rubble masonry 1. Uncuuz.xd.madun.u:.uhhiunazza.cx In uncoursed rubble masonry, undressed stone blocks as obtained from the quarry are used in the masonry works. The stones used vary much in size and shape. Larger stones are laid on flat beds so as to break joints as far as possible. Uncoursed rubble masonry is used for the construction of foundations, compound walls, garages, labour quarters etc. 2. The method of construction is same as above. All courses are not of the same height they vary from 30 to 45cm . Course rubble masonry is used for the construction of public and residential buildings. A skilled mason may arrange the facing stones in polygonal shapes to improve the aesthetic of the wall. 10 ICET
  11. EST 120- Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll Uncoursed rubble rnasonry Coursed rubble masonry 3. It random rubble masonry without any mortar. Hollow spaces around stones are tightly packed with smaller pieces of stones. This is used in the construction of retaining walls, earthen dams, canal slopes etc. In this type of masonry stones are dressed to get suitable shapes and sizes. The height of the stones varies from 250 mm to 300 mm. This is the best quality of masonry work and is very costly. The dressing Of the stone need not be very accurate on all sides. Usually good dressing is made on facing side. In such construction mortar consumption is less compared to rubble masonry. There are different types of ashlar masonry depending upon the type of dressing such as Ashlar fine dressed, Ashlar rough dressed, Ashlar rock or quarry faced, Ashlar facing, Ashlar chamfered etc. Ashlar masonry EQQES Roof is the topmost portion of a building and is constructed in such a way as to give protection to building from rain, snow, hail, wind, direct sunlight etc. 11 ICET
  12. EST 120- Requirements' Of an ideal roof: Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll It should protect the building from weathering agencies like sun, rain, wind etc. It should be durable. Roof should be waterproof with good drainage arrangement. It should be fire resistant. It should have adequate strength and stability. It should have thermal and sound insulation properties. Types of roofs: Generally roofs can classify into following categories based on shape. l. Pitched roof or sloped roof 2. Flat roof or terraced roof 3. Curved roof 1. Pitched or sloping roof: Pitched roof have a sloping top surface and they are used in coastal region where temperature is n»re or less equitable, but for heavy rainfall. Evrms of Ditched rooL• Shed or lean to roof: It slops in one direction and can be used for covering verandah portion, shed and extension. ii. Gable roof: It slopes in two directions. Gable Roof 12 ICET
  13. EST 120- Hip roof: It slops in four directions. Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll iii. iv. v. Gambrel roof: It slopes in two directions but there is a break in slope. Mansard roof: It slopes in four direction but slopes are not continuous. Technical terms used in wooden pitched root: a. Span: Span or clear span is the clear distance between supports. But effective span is the Center to center distance between the supports. b. Rise: It is the vertical distance between top Of the ridge and wall plate. c. Pitch: It is the measure of the slope of roof. It is expressed either as the inclination (angle) Of the side of roof to the horizontal plane or as a ratio of rise to span. d. Ridge: It is the apex or head line of a sloping roof and is also known as apex line. 13 ICET
  14. EST 120-Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll e. Hip: It is the external angle formed by the intersection Of two slopes. f. Valley: When two roof surfaces meet at an angle less than 1800, a valley is formed. g. Gable: If roof slopes in two directions, the closing wall in that portion may be a combination of triangular and rectangular wall. The triangular upper part of the wall formed at the end of pitched roof is known as gabble. h. Eaves and eaves board: Eaves are the lower edge of a sloping roof. Eaves board is a thin board of wood or metal sheet provided along the eaves connecting the ends of common rafter. i. Wall plate: This member is placed above the wall to receive the conumn rafter. This member transfers load from common rafter to wall. Lean to roof j. Purlins: Horizontal wooden or steel members, used to support roofing material of a roof. k. Rafters: Inclined members placed above the purlin and extend from ridge to eave. l. Truss: A frame work of triangles which transfers the load of roofing material, other members of roof, wind load etc. to wall or column. m. Battens: Small cross-section of wood which are fixed on common rafters to supporting roofing materials like tiles, A.C sheets, G.I sheets etc. n. Cleats: Small piece of steel or timber, angle or channel section used to connect purlins to nrinrinnl rnftor 14 ICET
  15. EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll 111. Truss: When span is greater than 5m or where the intermediate supports for purlins and ties are not available trusses are used. The triangular shape of truss offers great rigidity and here load transmission to wall is vertical. King post truss 2. Flat roof: Queen post truss These types of roofs are provided in areas which have less rainfall or have no snowfall. In flat roof a small slope is provided to drain Out the rain water. Commonly used flat roofs are Madras terrace roof. Bengalterrace roof, Reinforced brick cement roof, Reinforced cement concrete roof, Fillerslab. Reinforced cement concrete roof: They are made of concrete and steel RCC slabs are easy to construct and provides a smooth finishing surface. Advantages Of Flat roof: It does not require any false ceiling. Construction of upper floor can be easily started. It is more stable against high winds. Can used as floors in case of high rise buildings. Disadvantages of Flat roof: Cannot be used for long spans without beams and columns. Not suitable for high rainfall region. Proper surface slope is to be provided to drain of rain water. 3. Curved roofs: Their top surface is curved. Such roofs are usually provided for public buildings, theaters, recreation centers etc. to provide an architectural effect. Shells and domes are adopted when large column free areas are required. This type has an advantage that a lot of nuterial is saved as the structure is very 15 ICET
  16. EST 120- Roof coverings: Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll Roof coverings are material which gives a protective covering to the roofing structure. Selection of covering material depends upon various factors such as availability Of materials, its initial cost, cost Of maintenance, appearance, durability etc. Commonly used roofing materials are discussed below. 1. Tiles: Manufactured from clay and are fire resistant, cheap and durable. They are non-conductor of heat and cold thus it maintain the temperature inside the room as such. The main disadvantage of tiled roof is that tiles are heavier than Other roofing material thus requires closer spacing Of rafters and battens. Average weight of tiled roof is 7.5N/mm2. Most of the tiles are porous and thus absorb Imisture and may cause attack of vermin. Tiles are named according to their shape and pattem i. Plain tiles: Rectangular in shape. Pot tiles: Semi-circular in section and tapering along the length. iii. Pan tiles: Flat longitudinally but are curved transversely. 16 ICET
  17. iv. v. EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll Corrugated tiles: They have corrugation and when they are placed in position, a side lap of one or two corrugations are formed. Concrete roofing tiles: They are stronger than clay roofing tiles, durable and water resistant. 2Äsbestos Cement Sheets (A.C sheets): Manufactured from Asbestos which is a silky fibrous material found in volcanic rocks. It is mixed with Portland cement for manufacturing A-C sheets. Advqntgges: It is cheap, tough, durable, water tight, fire resisting and light in weight. It will not rust and does not require protective coating. It cannot be eaten away by vermin. Cost of fixing is considerably less than other type of roofing material. They are available in larger sizes which make the laying fast. Disadvantaees: This material has also got a very low thermal conductivity and heats the room in summer and cools in winter. 17 ICET
  18. Modulelll Uses: EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering It does not give a good attractive finish to the exterior of the roof. Industrial buildings Factories Sheds Cinema halls Auditorium 3. Aluminium sheets: It consists Of aluminium alloyed with a small percentage Of manganese for strength. It is the lightest of all roofing. It will reflect off the heat making the inside atmosphere cool. Due to light in weight nature of sheet, structural supports required can be light. The rmst important advantage is that it is corrosion free. These are used for warehouses, industrial buildings, automobile sheds etc. 4. Galvanized Iron sheets (GI sheets): They are extensively used as roofing material in factories. workshops. sheds etc. because they are very durable. light and fire proof. They are stronger than A.C sheets and are made of iron sheets, which are galvanized with zinc to protect them from rusting action of water and wet weather. G.I sheets are corrugated or bent in a series of parallel depression from end to end. The purpose of corrugation is to provide additional strength as they are only supported on purlins at fixed intervals. Corrugations help in proper discharge of water away from the sheets. The nuin drawback of this material is transmits heat and cold easily. It is liable to create condensation problems on the inner side in colder climate. 5. Fiber Reinforced polymer sheets: It is made with a glass of any suitable resin known as fiber glass sheets.Maintenance free and will perform well compared to Other roofing material. It is available in different colours and shades. E.g. PVC (Polyvinyl chloride) sheets, Poly carbonic sheets etc. Advantages: Excellent resistance to corrosion. Good chemical resistance and thermal insulation. Termite proof and water proof. Light in weight and hence can be handed easily. Do not warp and fade. Good dimensional stability and hence can be fabricated to any size or shape. Easy to repair and maintenance. 18 ICET
  19. FST 120— Basics of Civil Engineering FLOORS Modulelll Floors divide a building into different levels, one above the Other for the purpose Of creating more accommodation within a limited space. Depending upon the position of floors, floor can divided into three types. i. Ground Floor: Floor constructed just above the ground level. ii. Basement Floor: Hoor constructed below the ground level. iii. Upper Floors: Floors above the ground floors. It is further divided into first flo or, sec Ond floor etc. Floor consists of two components. sub-floor or base course and floor covering or flooring. i. Sub-floor or Base course: Bottom most portion of a floor. The purpose of this component is to impart strength and stability to support floor covering and all other super imposed load. Materials used for sub floor construction are brick, stone, wood and concrete. ii. Floor covering or Flooring: This is the covering over sub-floor and is meant to provide a hard, clean, smooth, impervious, durable and attractive surface to the floor. Functions of floors The main function Of floor is to provide support for the occupants, furniture and equipment's Of the building. Strength and stability: Strong enough to support the floor covering and other superimposed load. Durability and damp prevention: It should provide a clean, smooth, solid, durable and wear- resisting surface. Heat insulation Sound insulation and fire resistant Requirements of a floor It should be durable. It should have an attractive finish. It should be impervious. The floors should be strong enough to with stand the load. It should not be too costly. The maintenance cost should not be high. It should have a level surface. Factors considered in the selection of flooring materials: Durability, Appearance, Damp resistance, Fire resistance, Resistance to abrasion, Initial cost and Maintenance. Types of floors: 19 ICET
  20. EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll I. Ground floor 2. Upper floor 1. Ground floor: Bricks, stones, timber, concrete are used for ground floor construction. These materials are laid above the ground to the desired height over that suitable flooring material is given. 2. Upper floor: i. Timber floor: Made of timber joist and wooden planks. ii.Jack arch floor: • Brick or concrete arches are provided between rolled steel joists with spacing more than • Steel bars are provided at the end spans. • Side filling is done with lime concrete. • The arch is normally kept one-fifth of span. iii. Filler joist floor: • Rolled steel joist encased (enclose or cover) in concrete. • Joist are supiY)1ted on walls or side beams. 1 6in Steel Joists iv. Hollow brick ribbed Floor: It is used to reduce the weight of the floor. • Hollow blocks of tiles with clay or concrete are placed in the gaps of steel reinforcement. The spaces are filled with concrete. • The floor is economical fire resistant. sound proof and damp proof. • Slabs are directly casted over beams or wall support. • Continuous floor is casted on frame work of beams in a framed type building construction. vii. Flat Slab Floor: 20 ICET
  21. EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll Beams are avoided and slabs directly supported on columns. Column head or drop are constructed on column top. It requires less formwork for construction. More head room is available. It give more aesthetic appearance. viii. Pre-cast concrete floor: • • Floors are casted in factories and placed over the walls or beams. Pre cast units are jointed and grouted with cement mortar at site. Suitable floor covering is adopted over the floor. No formwork is required for this type of construction thus saving money and time. Ground Floor: First the soil is compacted. A layer Of broken stones or brick bats is then pressed into it. Then a layer of concrete of 1:4:8 mix is laid for about 150 mm thick as base course. The floor finish is then laid. The floor finish generally adopted is — Terrazzo, Mosaic, Marble, Tiles, and Timber. Upper Floors: The upper floors are supported on walls and columns. The floors have to withstand self-weight and live load. Therefore they are designed for strength, limiting the deflection to the allowable limits. The types Of floorings are listed above. Floor finishing materials: i. Cement Concrete Flooring: The most commonly adopted flooring is of cement concrete. For the construction Of the floor, soil is first filled up in the basement and compacted. Then the whole area is divided into convenient sizes Of squares or rectangles. These bays are then filled with concrete, compacted and finished smoothly. After curing, the floor is washed and cleaned. 21 ICET
  22. ii. iii. V. EST 120- Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll Mosaic Flooring:Hrst the base course of concrete is laid. Over which a layer of 30- 40 mm thick mortar is spread. Broken pieces of glazed tiles (mosaic chips) are set on this layer. After drying for a day. the top surface is rubbed with carborandum stone to get a polished surface. Timber Floor: Timber boards may be placed directly on the concrete bed or over a timber frame work. Timber floor is costly. It is generally provided in auditoriums. Tiled Floor: Tiles of clay, cement or terrazzo are manufactured in factories. These tiles are fixed on a base of about 25-30 mm thick cement mortar. Apply a layer of cement slurry on the sides and bottom Of the tile and then press it into the base Of mortar. The next day, the joints are cleaned filled up with coloured cement slurry. After curing for seven days, grinding and polishing are done. Stone flooring (Granite, Marble): • Cement mortar of average thickness 20mm are made. • Stone slabs are cleaned and washed; then laid on the top Of cement mortar. • They are placed with thin joints (3mm) or with thick joints (5mm). • Top of the stone is tapped with wooden mallet and brought to level with adjoining slab. pi. Brick flooring: • • • Cement concrete mix is laid in thickness. Over this bricks are placed in proper bonds. This floor is durable, hard and non-slippery. Cheaper than other conventional floors. LOAD BEARING AND FRAMED STRUCTURE Load bearing structure Load from roof and floors are transferred to foundation by walls Walls need foundation throughout Thickness of load bearing walls should be at least 200mm Too many openings for doors, windows and ventilators are not permitted Suited for residential purpose - one or two storey only 22 Framed structure Load from roof and floors are transferred through beams and columns to footings Footings are required for columns only Only exterior walls need 200 mm thick NO restriction Suitable for multi storey buildings ICET
  23. EST 120 - Basics of Civil Engineering Basic Infrastructure Services MEP Modulelll MEP stands for Mechanical, Electrical, and Plumbing. These are the three aspects linked to every building project that includes design, and construction and deals with the setup, functioning, and maintenance Of the three major elements Of a building project. MEP is an integral part Of a building project. 2. 3. Mechanical Systems Mechanical system most commonly relate to heating ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, but they also relate to transportation systems such as elevators and escalators. elements of infrastructure, industrial plant and machinery and so on. Electrical systems Electrical system might include: - Power supply and distribution , interior and exterior lighting, control systems, information and tele communication systems, security and access systems, detection and alarm system. Plumbing systems Plumbing refers to any systems that allows the movement of fluids, typically involving pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, sanitary fixtures and other apparatus. Plumbing systenus might be used for potable cold and hot water supply, water treatment system, rain Water, surface and subsurface drainage systems, waste water management etc. HVAC HVAC system is a Heating, Ventilation and Air conditioning system. This is the system or combination of system used to provide a comfortable temperature in building and maintain high levels Of air quality. The objectives of an HVAC system is to ensure that the indoor environment is both safe and comfortable for humans. Heating is the process of generating heat (warmth) for the building. This can be done via central heating with boiler, furnace or heat pump to heat water, steam. The heat can be transferred by convection conduction or radiation. Ventilation is the process of exchanging or replacing air in any space to provide high indoor air quality. This involves temperature control, oxygen replenishment and removal of moisture, odours, dust and airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide and Other gases. Methods Of ventilation in building may be divided in to mechanical/ forced (air handler units, exhaust fans, ceiling fans etc.) and natural types (windows, louvers etc.) Air Conditioning To maintain health, comfort and convenience of the occupants in residential buildings. It is required to preserve the quality of the products and to maintain the working of industrial process such as artificial silk and cotton cloth etc. In commercial buildings like theaters, offices, shops, banks etc. air conditioning is required to improve the working atmosphere and maintain comfort. Classification: 23 ICET
  24. EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll Based on function of air conditioning, it is classified into two types. 1. Comfort air conditioning: In this, the atmospheric conditions of air inside the room are created to give maximum human comfort. 2. Industrial air conditioning: In this, the atmospheric conditions are created, controlled and maintained which is suitable for the material processing, manufacturing and storage, rather than comfort. Based on air conditioning process. it is classified into three types. 1. Summer air conditioning: During summer, as the temperature outside is higher; the cycle of air condition operation involves air-cooling, dehumidifying, air distribution and air cleaning. 2. Winter air conditioning:During winter, as the temperature outside is lower; the cycle of air condition operation involves air heating, humidifying, air distribution and air cleaning. 3. Composite air conditioning: In this, air conditioning requires to be provided for whole year irrespective of outside temperature. Hence the cycle of operation involves humidifying together with air distribution and air cleaning. Principles of comfort air conditioning: 1. Temperature control: A temperature of 21-250C is required for comfort conditions regardless of the outside temperature. 2. Air velocity control: The velocity of air is generally taken as 6-91Wsec, which is considered as relatively to still air. 3. Humidity control: An average value Of relative humidity between 40-60% is considered desirable. During summer season 40-50% is comfortable and for winter 50-60% is suggested. Systems of air conditioning: 1. Central system: In this system. all equipments are installed at one central point and then the conditioned air is distributed to all rooms by ducts. This system requires less space for installation and the maintenance is also easy. 2. Self-contained or unit system: In this system, special portable attractive cabins which fit in the decoration of modern roonus are placed inside the room near the ceiling or widow. Conditioned air is fortned inside the unit itself. 3. Semi- contained or unitary central system: In this system, every room is provided with an air-conditioning unit and the room unit obtains its supply from the central system. The system requires small size Of ducts. 4. Combined System: It consist of following combinations Central and self-contained system Central and semi-contained system Self-contained and semi-contained system ELEVATORS: Elevator or lift is an appliance designed to transport persons or materials two or more levels in a vertical or substantially vertical direction by means of a guided car or platform. Passenger lift: Lift designed for the transport Of passengers. Hospital lift: Lift installed in hospital and designed to accommodate one number bed/stretcher along its depth with sufficient space around to carry a minimum of three attendants in addition to the lift operator. 24 ICET
  25. EST 120- Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll Goods lift: Lift designed primarily for the transport of goods, but which may carry a lift attendant or other persons necessary for loading and unloading of goods. Service lift: A passenger cum goods lift nrant to carry goods along with people. Fireman's lift: Lift car area shall not be less than 1.44m2 and with minimum capacity of 544kg(8persons). Doors are to be with automatic operation and have a minimum fire resistant of one hour. Design Considerations: The important considerations for design of lift system are of the following, a. Number of floors to be served. b.Floor to floor distance. c. Population of each floor. d.Maximum peak demand; this demand may be unidirectional, as in up or down peak period or a two way traffic movement. Design parameters: 1. Population: Total building population and its future projection are required for design of lift system. 2.Quantity of service (Handling Capacity):lt is the measure of passenger handling capacity of a vertical transportation system. 3.Quality of Service (or is related fundamentally to the time interval a passenger has to wait. It can also be said as the expected interval between the arrivals of elevators in the main floors. Location of elevators: Elevators are located at suitable places, For easy access to and from the main building entrance. Centrally for general ease of passenger journey. RAMPS: Ramps are slopping surfaces used to provide an easy connection between the floors or access from ground to the floor. As per the prevailing building bye laws, ramps are to provided in all public buildings and residential apartments for the use of physically challenged persons in lieu of steps/stairs. Ramps should be generally constructed with a non-slippery surface. Ramps are generally given a slope of 15%, but a slope of 8 to 10% is generally prefer-red. ESCALATORS: Escalators are power drive, inclined and continuous stairway used for raising or lowering Of passengers. They provide continuous movement Of persons and thus a remedy for heavy traffic volume between floors. They are used in airports, railway station, parking garage, shopping malls, hotels etc. General Specification: Speed Angle of inclination 25 0.46 to 0.50m/sec - 300 to 350 ICET
  26. Modulelll Width EST 120 — Basics of Civil Engineering Normally width are 6 lcm, 91.4cm, 1.22m Design of escalator is carried out with a handling capacity of 3200 to 6400 persons/hour. EIRE SAFETY EQR BUILDINGS The primary goal of fire safety eftörts is to protect building occupants from injury and to prevent loss Of life and property damage. According to Indian law, minimal fire safety equipment is mandatory for any developed property. These laws are given by the National Building code (NBC), which is a document containing standardized requirement for the design and construction of most types of building in the country. Some important aspects are 1. According to the height of the building, there shall be sufficient fire way around the building with minimum width of say 5m for the entry of fire engineers. 2. There shall be alternate fire stairs and lifts apart from the common stairs and lifts depending upon the floor area of the building. 3. Non consumable materials should be used for the construction of buildings and the internal walls Of staircase enclosures should be brick work or reinforced concrete 4. Emergency power supplying distribution system for critical requirement for functioning of fire and safety system particularly for the operation of fire pumps, lifts, emergency exit lighting. signage lighting, fire alarm system public address system and for fire control room. S. Sufficient exclusive water storage of water at ground water tank and terrace for rescue operations GREEN BUILDINGS Green buildings have a new approach to save water, energy and material resources in the construction and nuintenance of the buildings and can reduce or eliminate the adverse impact of building on the environment and occupants, as compared to a conventional building. "A green building is one which uses less water, optimizes energy efficiency, conserves natural resource, generate less waste and provides healthier spaces for occupants, as compared to a conventional building Green building materials The basic concept behind materials used in the construction of green building is the minimum release of green house gases(C02 ) during the production of those materials. Also these materials consume minimum quantities of water, energy and raw materials during production and conveyance. Many Of these are made by re use and recycle methods. Green building materials are reusable, energy efficient, sustainable and environment friendly. l. Earthen materials - Earthen materials like adobe, cob, and rammed earth are being used for construction purposes since yore. For good strength and durability- chopped straw, grass and other fibrous materials etc. are added to earth. 2. Engineered Wood - Wood is one of the most famous building materials used 26 around the world.But in the process of conversion of raw timber to wood boards and ICET
  27. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. EST 120- Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll planks, ny)St percentage Of wood may get wasted. This wastage can also be used to make structural parts like walls, boards, doors etc. in the form of engineered wood. Unlike solid wood, engineered wood contains different layers of wood, usually the middle layers are made of wood scraps, softwoods, wood fibers etc. Bamboo - Bamboo is one of the most used multipurpose and durable materials used in construction. These trees grow faster irrespective of climatic conditions. So, it makes it economical as well. They can be used to construct frames or supports, walls, floors etc. They provide a good appearance to the structures. SIPS - Structural insulated panels (SIPS) consist of two sheets of oriented strand boards or flake board with a foam layer between them. They are generally available in larger sizes and are used as walls for the structure. Because of their large size, they need heavy equipment to install however, they provide good insulation. Insulated Concrete Forms - Insulated concrete forms contain two insulation layers with some space in between them. This space contains sone arrangement for holding reinforcement bars, after placing reinforcement, concrete is poured into this space. They are light in weight, fire resistant, low dense and have good thermal and sound insulation properties. Cordwood - If wood is abundantly available and easily accessible to the site of construction, cordwood construction is recommended. It requires short and round pieces of wood which are laid one above the other, width wise, and are ly»nded together by special mortar mix. They are strong, environmental friendly and also give good appearance to the structure. Straw Bale - Straw bale is another green building material which can be used as framing material for building because of good insulating properties. They can also act as soundproof materials. Non-load bearing walls of straw bale can be used as fill material in between columns and, in beams framework is recommended. Since air Cannot pass through thenu straw bales also have some resistance to fire. Natural Fiber - Natural fibers like cotton, wool can also used as insulation materials. Recycled cotton fibers or wool fibers are converted into a batt and installed in preformed wooden frame sections. Cellulose - Cellulose is a recycled product of paper waste and it is widely used around the world for insulation purposes in structure. It acts as good sound insulator and available for cheap prices in the market. 10. Cork - Cork is also a good insulator. Boards or panels made of cork are available in markets. A great amount of electrical energy can be saved by corkboard insulation in winter. These cork boards are also good for sound insulation. Energy wpt€r management systenE Optimization of energy and water consumption is the key factor in green buildings. There are efficient nrasures adapted in reducing the use of these resources. 27 ICET
  28. EST 120-Basics of Civil Engineering Modulelll The methods to improve building's energy efficiency are l. The solar energy on a green building is trapped to supplement the conventional energy. 2. The natural light is allowed to enter to minimize the usage Of electricity 3. Sunlight is restricted by the high grown trees outside 4. High efficiency light fixtures like LED lamps make a pleasant light apart from saving energy 5. Installation of motion detectors for lighting control which makes light to glow only when area is occupied. 6. Allowing building occupants to imlividually control heating and cooling in their living or workspaces is an effective to reduce energy use. Water management system Water efficiency means reducing the usage of water and minimizing the waste water. In conventional building drinking water turns in to black or gray water and water runs off. But in green building drinking water turns in to grey water is recycled and used it again. This is the system were water efficiency is achieved. [Black water is the mixture Of urine, feces and flush water etc. , Water coming from equipment other than toilets is called grey water.] Other aspects of water management in green building are the following. l. Rain water harvesting facilities 2. The toilets shall be fixed with low water consuming flushes. 3. Wash taps are controlled with motion sensors which reduces the use of water in unwanted 4. Using water efficient appliances like washing machines and dish washers. 5. Plumbing arrangements are done in such a way that drinking water is used for drinking purpose only. 28 ICET

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