Political Science Tutors for Class 11 - 12 in Delhi

Abdul Ghaffar khan,a devout disciple of Mahatma Gandhi was popularly known as frontier Gandhi.

India is a democracy and one of the features of democracy is free and fair elections where the citizen has a right to choose their representative. If there is a single party, then there is no choice available to the people except for a single person. Moreover, multipart system promotes healthy democracy by keeping the system of checks and balances over one another.

Fundamental Rights are those which are enshrined in the constitution and have a priviledge over the other rights mentioned in the constitution. The priviledge is that in case they are broken,an individual can directly approach to the Supreme Court. In case the right is not a fundumental right , an individual shall first approach the High Court Supreme Court can also issue writs in case the fundamental rights are broken. Basic Structure Though the concept is not explicitly mentioned in the constitution but Supreme Court in various judgements has outlined this concept. The rights falling under this concept cannot be taken away in any circumstances. And fundamental Rights are a part of basic structure of the constitutions. Moreover if any law is against the basic structure, Supreme Court can declare it null and void.

There are mainly 2 functions of the Constitution. They are as follows:- 1. To make the government consisting of Legislative, executive and Judiciary system. 2. To divide the powers between the Federal and the State government.

Public sector in india were once upon a time at commanding height of the economy. Due to its preeminence the first PM Nehru had called it the temple of modern India. But today ,barring a few exceptions, public sector in general is deteriorating at an alarming rate. The reason can be cited as below: 1. Monopolistic behavior: Public sector usually since independence operated without any competition from peers. This led them towards complacency 2.Inefficiency : Not facing challenges resulted into public sector being inefficient . Because they didn't have to be accountable. 3.Non professional management: Public sector usually is governed by generalists Ias who are not specialized in that field . They may not understand the nitty gritty of the underlying business model. More so these officials do not have a fixed tenure there . So by the time they try to learn the detail, they have to get ready for next department. In this way company becomes rudderless. 4.Deep nexus between Politician and civil servant: This result into misappropriation of public sectpr accounts profit. And very less profit is left to run the organization and to expand it. Although the above reason is responsible for deterioration of public sector , but it is not rigid pattern . Once the good practices starts slide can be reversed. For example Isro Antrix , HAL etc is continuously making profit whereas Air India , PSB are in deep losses.

The Russian economy, for the past 69 years, had operated on a centrally-controlled planned economy on various means of production, investment, consumption decisions.   The economic policy had a complete base on the principles of the Communist Party, who authoritatively controlling all aspects of economic activity.  The real issues like economy dependency on volatile oil and gas prices, downsizing and unreformed monopolies, state still large from an emerging economy, non-exist banking system, corruption-plagued business transactions, and concrete infrastructural reforms such as housing and pension were not dealt in-depth, but a seemingly slow trend towards a pro-market direction in Russia’s economy was evident.  The Communist Party had proved its limits with debts, staggering economy and several state revolts leaving the only possibility of progress for Russia economy seemed to be in the transition to capitalism.  With communism collapsing at the onset of the 1990s, USSR experienced difficulties in transiting from a fundamentally centrally managed economy to a laissez-faire economy and transiting from communism to capitalism in terms of population, economic potential and an inherent strict centralist system leading to complete disintegration of the USSR in 1991. The transition occurred multi-dimensionally in terms of social, cultural, political and policy areas coupled with a complex psychological and mental process because of its deep-rooted socialist tradition.  Russians were thrown into the fathomless pool of market economy.  This kind of change was difficult because a great battle was waged against the people's mentality.  For example in the communist state guaranteed job with a strong feeling of stability was there while with the State privatization citizens not only had to tend for themselves but also had to find a job.

USA and USSR become rivals from 1945 to 1949 and started the term Cold war be attributed to the following reasons:

The most important reason was they were natural rivals because of their radical ideology difference - One supported Capitalism while the other Communist idealogy. Secondly, USA and USSR emerged as the two real superpowers post World War II and started competing against each other to become more powerful than the other especially through arms supermacy.  When USA tested their new weapon, the atomic bomb in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan.  Roosevelt and later Truman were keen to boast to Stalin about this new military achievement at the Potsdam and Yalta conferences in July and August 1945thereby irking each other into buidling a more stronger military and defence bases through advanced technology. Thridly, appointment of Truman as President of USA and implementing the Truman doctrine (meant money, equipment and advice was to be given to any country which was under threat from a communist takeover) had a huge fall out against the delogy of USSR who were trying to spread communism in Europe. Lastly, both wanted to prevent Germany from starting another war, but they approached the issue in quite different ways.  Stalin wanted to crush Germany so it would not be able to rise and attack USSR again, while Truman thought that this may be a repeat of the treaty of Versailles so wanted to help Germany recover and made it a valuable trading partner.

Hello Readers,

States reorganisation commission was appointed by Government of India in 1953, under chair of Faizal Ali, to reorganise the states boundaries. THe faizal Ali commission submitted its report in 1955 and as per its recommendation, states Reorganisation Act, 1956 came into force. It made fllowing recommendations:

It recommended that states may be reorganised or boundaries can be re drawn on the basis of 'Languages of India' and not on the basis of religion.

It recommended to do away with earlier arrangement of Part A, Band C states, and recommended that there will be States and Union governed Union Territories.  

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) was a loose confederation of 15 republics with Russia as the leader. USSR was a strong bloc with great control over global politics from 1922 to 1991 when it was disintegrated into smaller units.  The Russian Revolution of 1917 ended the Russian empire. This was followed by the Russian Civil War which finally resulted in the formation of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922.

The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) had a total of 15 republics before its disintegration in 1991. Russia was one of the republics. The listing below the member republics in the country.

1. Armenia 2. Azerbaijan 3. Belarus 4. Estonia 5. Georgia 6. Kazakhstan 7. Kyrgyzstan 8. Latvia 9. Lithuania 10. Moldova 11. Russia 12. Tajikistan 13. Turkmenistan 14. Ukraine 15. Uzbekistan

The disintegration of the USSR: Major Events

• Crisis in the Socialist bloc: People in many east European countries started protests against their own governments and USSR. Without the right intervention from USSR at the right time, communist governments in the second world collapsed one after the other.
• The fall of the Berlin Wall: Germany was divided after the Second World War – among the socialist USSR and the capitalist western regimes. The fall of Berlin led to a series of events including the disintegration of the USSR.
• Economic and political reforms in USSR: Gorbachev identified the economic and political problems of USSR, and started a series of reforms, with the intention to revive the economy. This was a deviation from the communist policies and was more closely associated with the market economy. Many communist leaders in USSR opposed reforms initiated by Gorbachev.  They encouraged a coup in 1991.
• Coup: The coup of 1991.
• Opposition against the coup: Boris Yeltsin won the popular election in the Russian Republic, protested against the coup and central control of USSR. Freedom for republics became the slogan. Boris Yeltsin and the pluralist movement advocated democratization and rapid economic reforms while the hard-line Communist elite wanted to thwart Gorbachev’s reform agenda.
• The power shift from Soviet centre to republics: Republics like Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus emerged powerful.  They declared that the Soviet Union was disbanded.

The decision to split USSR into independent republics was not a joint one. Central Asian countries wanted to remain inside USSR, but the decision was taken against their choice.

Factors which led to the disintegration of the USSR: We have seen the highlights of the dramatic events: the disintegration of the USSR, the collapse of the second world and thus the end of the cold war. But why did the Soviet Union disintegrate? Once the second most powerful country in the world -The Soviet Union – failed to keep it together with the units. Was it the ambition of republics inside which led to the disintegration of Soviet Union? 1. Economic Weakness. Huge military spending. Maintenance of satellite states in Eastern Europe. Maintenance of the Central Asian Republics within the USSR. 2. Political Un-accountability. The communist party regime (single party rule) for around 70 years turned authoritarian. There was widespread corruption, nepotism and lack of transparency.  Gorbachev’s decision to allow elections with a multi-party system and create a presidency for the Soviet Union began a slow process of democratization that eventually destabilized Communist control and contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union. 3. Gorbachev’s reforms. Once people started to enjoy freedom under Michael Gorbachev’s reforms, they demanded more. The demand grew into a big force which turned difficult to control. The people wanted to catch up with the west quickly. 4. The rise of nationalism. The rise of nationalism among countries like Russia, Baltic republics (Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), Ukraine, Georgia etc is the most important and immediate cause of the disintegration of the USSR.

Consequences of the disintegration of the USSR:

• The fall of the second world.
• The period marked the end of many communist regimes in response to mass protests.
• End of the cold war: End of the arms race, end of ideological confrontations.
• Change in power equations: Unipolar world, capitalist ideology, IMF, World Bank etc.
• The emergence of new countries and new alliances – E.g. Baltic countries aligned with NATO.

The two-nation theory is the basis of the creation of Pakistan. It states that Muslims and Hindus are two separate nations by every definition; therefore, Muslims should be able to have their own separate homeland in the Muslim majority areas of India, in which Islam can be practiced as the dominant religion.   The two-nation theory was a founding principle of the Pakistan Movement (i.e. the ideology of Pakistan as a Muslim nation-state in South Asia), and the partition of India in 1947.

The theory asserted that India was not a nation. It also asserted that Hindus and Muslims of the Indian subcontinent were each a nation, despite great variations in language, culture, and ethnicity within each of those groups.  To counter critics, who said that a community of radically varying ethnicities and languages who were territorially intertwined with other communities could not be a nation, the theory said that the concept of nation in the East was different from that in the West. In the East, religion was "a complete social order which affects all the activities in life" and "where the allegiance of people is divided on the basis of religion, the idea of territorial nationalism has never succeeded."  It asserted that " a Muslim of one country has far more sympathies with a Muslim living in another country than with a non-Muslim living in the same country."  Therefore, "the conception of Indian Muslims as a nation may not be ethnically correct, but socially it is correct.

The immediate outcome of “Two Nations Theory” initiated by M.A. Jinnah in 1940, was the partition of British India into two nation-states:

• India.
• Pakistan.

The drawing of the border demarcating the territory of each country marked the culmination of political developments.